LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 




A COURSE 



COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR 



FOR THE 



PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR GRADES 



OF THE 



INDIANAPOLIS PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 



3<\' 






CEC 






REPARED BY 



GEOf P/BROWN and RUTH MORRIS. 



INDIANAPOLIS ; 

1877. 










Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, by 

GEORGE P. BROWN 

and 

RUTH MORRIS, 

In the Office of Librarian of Congress at Washington. 



\ 



PREFACE. 



The following Manual presents an outline of the course in Com- 
position actually pursued in the Primary and Grammar departments 
of the Public Schools of Indianapolis, together with a detailed state- 
ment of the course in Grammar for the three upper grades. 

In the first five grades, Grammar and Composition are taught 
together. Grammatical forms are learned as they are used ir% 
expressing thought. At the beginning of the sixth year the study of 
the sentence as a whole, and in its parts, is begun. This is a work 
so different from that of Composition, that the two subjects are 
taught separately for the next three years. Three recitations are 
required each week in Grammar, and two in Composition. 

An outline of the course in Grammar for the Sixth Grade will be 
found in Chapter VI. of the Course in Composition, Part II. 

Pupils in the Seventh Grade complete the first twelve chapters of 
" Lessons in Grammar." • These are reviewed in the Eighth Grade, 
and the remainder of Part I. is completed. 

In the preparation of the " Lessons in Grammar," an effort has 
been made to lead the pupils to see that the forms and uses of words 
are determined by the thought to be expressed. A classification of 
attributes and of objects, — the material with which the mind deals 
in forming thoughts, — and the separation of the thought into its 
elements, prepares the pupil to comprehend more fully the office of 
the sentence in expressing this thought. Starting with the sentence 
as the unit of language, he learns by the processes of analysis and 
synthesis, the use of words, phrases, and clauses, in giving expression 
to an unlimited number and variety of thoughts. He is next led to 
see that this large amount of material out of which sentences are 
constructed, can all be separated into seven distinct classes or groups ; 
viz., (1) those words that denote objects of thought, — nouns and pro- 
nouns ; (2) those words that denote attributes of objects, — adjectives; 



IV PREFACE. 

(3) those words that denote attributes of attributes, — adverbs; (4) 
those words that denote the judging act of the mind, — verbs; (5) 
those words that express relations of objects and attributes,— preposi- 
tions; (6) those words that express relations of thoughts, — conjunc- 
tions; (7) those words that express feeling, — interjections. 

After a brief study of each of these classes, and of the principal 
sub- classes under each, the pupil is prepared to see that the inflec- 
tion of words is but another way of denoting a change in their 
meaning: that instead of using words, phrases, and clauses, changes 
in the form of the word itself are introduced, to denote certain mod- 
ifications of the thought. 

This Manual is full of errors, some of which may be charged to the 
printer, but the authors are conscious that the most serious faults are 
chargeable to them. Their apology is, that the different chapters 
have been written at such times as could be taken from other duties,. 
and no time has been found for revision or correction. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER I. 



ATTRIBUTES. 



The sun may be known and distinguished from other objects by its 
brightness, its warmth, its roundness, etc. ; a slate, by being hard, opaque, 
etc. ; an apple, by being ripe or unripe, large or small, red, green, etc. 

Brightness, warmth, hardness, ripeness, etc., are called attributes 
of the objects to which they belong. 

An Attribute is that by which an object is known or 
distinguished. 

Of the attributes mentioned above, brightness, warmth, roundness* 
and hardness are permanent attributes of their objects. They can 
not change unless the nature of the object changes. An object that 
was not bright, warm, and round would not be the sun, but some 
xlinerent object. Such attributes are called qualities. 

A Quality is an attribute that is viewed as belonging 
to its object permanently. 

When we think of the sky as cloudy, the weather as rainy, the 
apple as hard or mellow, we do not regard these attributes as perrna^* 
nent, enduring so long as the object exists; but as states or conditions 1 
of the objects. We can think of them as ceasing or changing, with- 
out any such change in the nature of the object as to make it a. v 
different object from what it was before. Such attributes are called 
attributes of condition. 



2 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

An Attribute of Condition is an attribute that i» 
viewed as belonging to its object only for a time, and may 
change without a change in the nature of the object. 

Exercise. 

Distinguish the words in the following that express attributes of 
quality, from those expressing attributes of condition: 

Cold winter. Frosty weather. Round earth. White snow. Cloudy 
sky. Shining sun. The old man. Green grass. The hungry dog. 
The rising sun. The new moon. Balmy spring. An open window- 
Bright days. Sour apples. Black cloth. Skillful artisans. Soaring 
eagles. Working bees. 

Model— A red flower. A faded flower. The word red expresses a quality. The 
word faded expresses a condition. 

Give five original illustrations of attributes of quality; five of 
attributes of condition. 

John studies. My horse runs. Those swallows fly. Here the 
subjects are known by certain actions they perform. These actions 
are therefore attributes. 

An Attribute of Action is one that represents an object 
as acting. 

In the sentence, "The apple is larger than the peach," we dis- 
tinguish the apple by stating the relation that it bears to the peach 
in respect of size. When we say " The rose is more fragrant than 
the lily," we have distinguished the rose by stating the relation it 
bears to the lily in respect of odor. 

" A large house stands on the bill." Here, by the use of the word 
large, we imply that there is something else with which the house is 
compared. It is either compared with other houses of its own class, 
or with other houses in general, or with the use commonly made of 
houses; and the conclusion is reached that this particular house is 
large. If the house be a dwelling house, it may be large when com* 
pared with other dwelling houses, but when compared with a church 
or a court-house it is small. Or if it is large when compared with 
other houses in general, yet when compared with a mountain it is 
small. i 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 3 

Thus we see that objects may be known or distinguished by 
certain relations that they bear to other objects. These relations 
are, therefore, attributes. 

An Attribute of Relation is an attribute that distin- 
guishes its object by referring in some way to some other 
object. 

The relation between objects may be in respect of color, odor, size, 
form, weight, etc.; or it may be that of cause and effect; as, the rain 
moistens the earth; sunshine ripens the fruit; or it may be that of 
action ; as, John outran James. The different classes of relations 
that may exist between objects are very numerous. 

In the sentence, " James is here," the word, here, shows where 
James is; or, stated differently, it shows his relation to space. So- 
in the sentence, "'The pencil is in my hand," the words, in my hand,, 
show the place of the pencil, — where it is located in space. 

In the sentence, " The meeting was yesterday," the word, yester- 
day, tells when the meeting was ; it expresses the time of the meeting.. 
Hence we say that it shows the relation of the meeting to time. 

Attributes of relation may be of three classes: (1) those that show 
the relation of the object to space ; (2) those that show the relation, 
of the object to time ; (3) those that show the relation of one object 
to another. 

We have found that there are four classes of attributes ; viz., 
Qualities, Actions, Conditions and Relations. 

Exercise. 

Classify the attributes expressed in the following: Chalk is brittle. 
Fishes swim. Glass is transparent. My brother is sick. The court- 
house is on Washington street. The child is asleep. The street is 
muddy. The eclipse was yesterday. You are in haste. Kubber is 
elastic. Frost benefits the soil. The blue sky is overhead. The 
grass is parched and dry. 

John is more industrious than his brother. The workmen built 
the house. Paint improves houses. The elm is more symmetrical 
than the ash. Common air outweighs smoke. The weather is cold 
and rainy. The ship is in decay. Aloes are bitter. The old man is 
here. John is the tallest man in town. Life is sometimes bright 
and fair, and sometimes dark and lonely. Severe exercise in sum- 
mer is exhausting. 



4 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

Write fire original sentences, illustrating attributes of quality j 
of condition; of action; of relation. State the kind of relation 
expressed in each. State the difference between the attributes of 
quality and those of condition. 

Note.— The attributes of objects should be carefully distinguished from the parts 
of objects. 



CHAPTER II. 

OBJECTS. 

A bstracts, Concretes. 

The object to which aiTattribute belongs, is the subject of 
the attribute. 

Exercise. 

Name, in the following, the words expressing attributes, and those 
'expressing the subjects of these attributes: 

James is studious. Frank grows. Doves coo. The weather is 
warm. The old man is here. The brave soldiers fought. The busy 
bee gathers honey. The lecture was on Friday. My new book is 
on the table. Tall, graceful pillars support the roof. 

The attributes expressed in the preceding exercises are all viewed 
as connected with their subjects. This is the original and natural 
way of viewing attributes. The color green, for example, is first 
known as connected with and belonging to the grass, the leaves, or 
to some other object. It is possible, however, for us to think of the 
color green, without connecting it with any particular object. We 
thus abstract it from all objects and think only of the attribute itself ; 
as when we say, " Greenness is a color belonging to many objects." 

When thus separated or abstracted from all objects, the attribute 
itself is viewed as an object. It has no real existence apart from 
fiome object, but we think of it and talk of it as if it had. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 5 

An attribute thought apart from its subject is called an 
abstract object, or an abstract. 

The form of the word expressing an abstract is usually different 
from that which expresses the attribute proper: Examples. — The 
word u hard " expresses an attribute proper, " hardness," an abstact; 
" beautiful" expresses an attribute proper, " beauty," an abstract; 
" timid," an attribute; " timidity," an abstract. 

Note.— Words expressing abstracts end in "ness," "ty," "th," "nee," "tioa, M 
4t sion," "ing," "age," " ment," "ure," ete. 

Exercise. 

State which of the following words express abstracts, and which, 
attributes proper: — White; whiteness; soft; heavy; smoothness; 
quickness; large; solidity; humid; honesty; true; truth ; 'color. 

Since there are four classes of attributes, there must be four classes 
of abstracts: viz., Abstracts (1) of quality, (2) of action, (3) of con- 
dition, (4) of relation. 

Exercise* 

Name and designate the classes of abstracts expressed in the fol- 
lowing: 

Change all the words expressing abstracts to forms that will 
express attributes proper. 

The brightness of the sun is dazzling. Fragrance belongs to the 
rose. The sickness of his brother detained him. Running is tire- 
some. Resistance is useless. The tartness of the apple is unpleas- 
ant. By exercise we gain strength. The excessive heat of the 
summer was depressing. The superiority of his brother was mani- 
fest Gravity and dignity are becoming. The remoteness of the 
country made communication difficult. Patience and perseverance 
remove mountains. Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me. 

Write five original sentences, in which abstracts of quality are 
expressed; five, of condition; five, of action; five, of relation. 

Both abstract objects and attributes proper may have attributes. 

Examples :—Singing pleases. Modesty is attractive. Kind actions 
promote happiness. The orator speaks fluently. The white snow falls 
softly and silently. The words, " pleases," " attractive," " kind," and 



6 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 



" promote " express attributes of abstracts. 4< Fluently," " softly," 
and " silently" express attributes of other attributes. 

Write five original sentences, expressing in each an attribute of an 
attribute; five, expressing an attribute of an abstract. Designate. 

Select sentences from the reader illustrating the same. Name the 
attribute in each case. 

There is another class of objects that are real objects. A horse, a 
man, the sun, a house, the mind, are not first known as attributes of 
other objects, as abstracts are, but they are known only as subjects 
of attributes. Such objects are called concrete objects or concretes. 

A Concrete is aD object only known as a subject having 
attributes : 

Or, 

Objects that are not known as attributes, are Concretes. 

Exercise. 

Point out in the following sentence, (1) all words expressing con- 
cretes; (2) all those expressing abstracts; (3) all those expressing 
attributes of concretes^ or of abstracts; (4) all expressing attributes of 
attributes. 

Name the class to which each attribute belongs. 

The house is new. Charity is kind. Forbearance is praiseworthy. 
Eain fell last night. The children are poor, hungry, cold, and 
friendless. Wisdom is better than gold. Truth and candor possess 
a powerful charm. White clouds float along the sky softly and 
tranquilly. Virtue attendeth at her right hand. Down the smooth 
rock, melodious waters glide. 

They softly lie and sweetly sleep, 
Low in the ground, 
f Quality. 



I Condition. f Concrete. 

Attributes, -J Objects, < 

Action. I Abstract. 



Keiation. 

| State the resemblances and differences between Concretes, Ab- 
stracts, and Attributes.; 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 4 

CHAPTER III. 

A THOUGHT OR JUDGMENT. 

When we think something of some object, a thought or judgment 
is formed. 

Examples: The apple is sweet. Snow is white. The pencil is 
hard. 

"When we analyze the first example, we find that there are three 
elements to be considered: (1) that of which we think; viz., the apple: 
(2) that which we think of the apple; viz., sweet: (3) the relation that the 
mind discerns as existing between these, expressed by " is." The first and 
second elements constitute the matter of thought. They are the 
material with which the mind deals; but there is no thought formed, 
nntil the mind discerns that sweetness is an attribute belonging to 
the apple : that is, until it discerns the relation existing between the 
first two elements. 

NoTE.-*-This relation is different in different thoughts. In the example, 
"Grant is President," that of which we think,— Grant,— and that which we think 
of this object,— the president,— are represented as being one and the same person. 
There is no difference between the president, and Grant; they are totally 
indentical. The relation discerned between these two elements is that of total 
identity. 

In the example, " The snow is white," whiteness is thought to be identical with 
•one attribute of snow only ; it is only partially the same as snow. The relation is, 
therefore, one of partial identity. 

In the example, "Chalk is not black," we think that there is no attribute of 
chalk that is the same as blackness. Hence we say that the relation discerned 
between chalk and black is one of non-identity. 

In every thought, some one of these relations must be discerned. 

The three elements of the thought are named the subject^ 
the predicate; and the copula. 

The Subject of the Thought is that of which some- 
thing is thought. 

The Predicate of the Thought is that which is thought 
of the subject. 



8 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

The Copula of tlie Thought is the relation between? 
the subject and predicate, as discerned by the mind. 

Note to Teachers.— In this discussion, the thought has been viewed as a 
product. It is possible to view it as a process ; in which case the copula would 
be denned to be the thinking or judging act of the mind. 



CHAPTER IV 



THE SENTENCE. 

There are many ways of expressing thoughts : e. g., by signs and 
gestures, by inarticulate sounds, by pictures, by objects. In fact, 
everything that exists is an expression of thought. The house that 
we live in, the clothes that we wear, the food that we eat, the flowers, 
the grass, the trees, the stars, all express thoughts. Among rational 
beings, the commonest way of expressing thoughts is by the use ol 
words. 

A group of words expressing a thought is a Sentence* 

Exercise. 

State which words in the following sentences express subjects of 
thought; which express predicates; which express copulas. State 
whether the subject and predicate are identical or non-identical, and 
whether the identity is total or partial: 

The knife is new. John is not studious. The earth is round. Two 
and two are four. The man is an artist. James is erect. • Slate is 
transparent. The ship was the Pacific. Iron is a mineral. A tree 
is root, trunk, branches, and leaves. Truth is virtue. A triangle is 
a three-sided figure. Leaves are green. Austin was the governor. 
John is a post master. Birds are fowls. 

Since the subject, predicate, and copula are each essential to the 
existence of a thought, they are called the elements of a thought. 

Since the thought has three elements, the sentence which expresses 
the thought has three elements, called subject, predicate, and cvpula* 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 9 

The Subject of a Sentence is that element which 
expresses the subject of the thought. 

Tlie Predicate of a Sentence is that element which 
expresses the predicate of thought. 

The Copula of a Sentence is that element which 
expresses the copula of the thought : 

Or, 

The Copula of a Sentence is that element which ex- 
presses the relation discerned between the subject and 
predicate of thought. 

Exercise. 

Point out the subjects, predicates, and copulas, in the following sen- 
tences: 

Water is tasteless. Fawns are timid. Dogs are quadrupeds. Man 
is mortal. Diamonds are combustible. Stars are suns. Vinegar is 
sour. Snow is not black. 

What relation exists between the subject of thought and the sub- 
ject of the sentence? What, between the subject of thought and the 
subject of an attribute? 

The copula and the predicate in each of the sentences in the pre- 
ceding exercise are separate words. In the sentences, " Flowers 
bloom," "Ice melts," "Birds twitter," and the like, they are united 
in one word. 

Write five original sentences in which each element consists of a 
single word; five, in which the predicate and copula are united in 
one word. 

Select from the reader ten sentences of each class. 

Predicates may express concrete or abstract objects, or they may 
express attributes of these objects. 

Examples: — Trees are plants. (concrete.) Patience is a virtue. 
(abstract.) Washington was brave, (attribute of concrete.) Cowardice 
is disgraceful (attribute of abstract.) 



10 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

m 
A predicate that expresses an attribute, is an attributive 
predicate. 

Predicates that express concrete or abstraet objects, are 
non- attributive predicates. 

Exercise. 

Write ten original sentences containing attributive predicates: 
ten, containing non-attributive predicates. 

Classify the predicates in the following sentences: 

Grass grows. Knowledge is powerful. Knowledge is power. 
Dogs are animals. The mind thinks. The sun is in the heavens. 
The sea is at rest. The lightning flashes. The apple is mellow. 
John is a good boy. The dead leaves fall. The tree is a poplar. 
Pure water is tasteless. Vulcan was a blacksmith. Morning dawns. 

Mary is superior to her classmates. 

Note.— When the copula and predicate are united in one word, the predicate is 
always attributive. 



CHAPTER V. 



MODIFIERS. 



In the sentence, " Man is mortal," all human beings are included. 
The application of the word man is not limited to an individual, nor 
to a class of men. In the sentence, " That tall man is a soldier," the 
word man applies to only one individual. This change in the appli- 
cation of the word, is produced by the words that and tall. They limit 
the meaning to one particular man. If we say, " Man is a soldier," 
we include all men. By the addition of the word tall, we exclude all 
except tall men, but we include all tall men. We limit the application 
of the word to a class. But when we say, " That tall man," we limit 
the application to a single one of the class. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 11 

Words used to limit the application of other words are 
called modifying words. 

"Sparkling diamonds," " Silent flowers." — The words sparkling and 
silent are not here used to limit the application of the words to which 
they are added. All diamonds are sparkling and all flowers are silent. 
They are used to call attention to, and make more prominent, quali- 
ties that belong to all diamonds and all flowers. Such words are also 
called modifying words. 

The office of all modifying words, — whether they limit the appli- 
cation, or give prominence to an attribute,— is to make the meaning 
of the words to which they are added, more definite. 

A Modifying Word is a word added to another word to 
make its meaning more definite. 

Exercise. 

Point out the modifying words in the following, and distinguish 
those limiting the application of other words, from those used to give 
prominence to some attribute : — Red apples. Twinkling stars. 
Revolving planets. Pleasant faces. Bristling spears. Old men. 
Purple flowers. Checkered life. Tall girls. Kind hearts. Unfad- 
ing hope. Starless despair. Golden clouds. Ruffled spirits. Green 
emeralds. A wild, woody dingle. 

That part of the subject, predicate, or copula, to which modifying 
words are added, is the principal part 

That part of each element consisting of one or more modifying 
words, is the modifying part. 

The predicate and copula, whether combined or uncombined, may 
contain a principal and a modifying part. 

Examples. — John is probably very studious. John probably studies 
very hard. 

In the first sentence the copula and predicate are uncombined 
and each contains a modifier. In the second example, the predicate 
and copula are united in one word and each element contains a 
modifier. As predicate, the word " studies " is modified by the word 
" hard ; " as copula, by the word " probably." 

Note:— The sentence, "John is studious,"' shows that we think the attribute 



12 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

expressed in the word ' studious," of John. But when we say, " John is proba- 
bly studious," it shows that we are in some doubt as to whether John is studious 
or not. The relation between John and this attribute is expressed as uncertain 
or doubtful. But when we say, ''John is certainly studious." we make it very 
emphatic that we think the attribute expressed in the word "studious" belongs 
to John. We see that both " probably " and "certainly " refer to the relation dis- 
cerned between the subject and the predicate of thought: therefore they belong 
to the copula of the sentence. 

Exercise. 

Write five sentenc.es in which the predicate and copula are 
combined, and each element contains a modifying word ; five, in 
which they are uncombined and each element contains a modifying 
part; five, in which all the elements contain modifying words. 

The principal part of the subject, predicate, or copula, is called the 
grammatical subject, predicate, or copula. 

When there are no modifying words, the grammatical and logical 
elements are the same. 

Exercise. 

Separate each of the following sentences into its logical and gram- 
matical elements: 

State whether the predicate and copula are combined or uncom- 
bined, and whether the predicate is attributive or non-attributive. 

Mary writes. Gold is valuable. He is brave. You are indeed 
kind. No fearful plague raged there. The north wind blows vio- 
lently to-night. He necessarily remains weak. He finally started. 
The standard was probably low. Undoubtedly he is a great man. 
The large hall was brilliantly illuminated. These, perhaps, are fool- 
ish feelings. A crimson rose is certainly a beautiful flower. 

The principal part of an attributive predicate may be modified by 
a word expressing an attribute; as, Mary thinks accurately, James 
works well. The sea is beautifully blue. • 

Such words are called Attributive Modifiers. 

Write five sentences which shall contain attributive predicates 
having attributive modifiers. 

Point out the attributive modifiers in the preceding exercise. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 13 

In the sentence, " Cain slew Abel," the principal part of the predi- 
cate is modified by the word " Abel," which expresses the immediate 
object of the action expressed in in the word " slew." In the sen- 
tence, u John outran James," a relation is expressed having James as 
the direct object. In the sentence, " He gave the book to me," the 
principal part of the predicate is modified by the words " book " and 
"me." The word "book" expresses the direct object of the action 
expressed in the word "gave," and the word "me" the indirect 
or remote object. 

A modifying word that expresses the object of an action 
or relation, is called an Objective Modifier, 

An objective modifier that expresses the immediate object of an 
action or relation, is a direct objective modifier. One that expresses a 
remote object, is ah indirect objective modifier. 

Exercise. 

Define an attributive modifier; an objective modifier; a direct 
objective modifier ; an indirect objective modifier. 

Write sentences illustrating the use of these different classes of 
modifiers. 

Point out the attributive and the objective modifiers in the follow* 
ing, and distinguish the direct from the indirect objective modifiers: 

The rain falls softly. The cattle eat grass. The clouds are won- 
derfully beautiful. The boy broke the window. The great ship 
moves slowly. Grace lost the ball. The water is very deep. 
"William conquered England. I am too idle. The sun fades the 
carpet. He went to New York. He saw the general. He was lately 
here. The smoke descends slowly. The party visited the falls. 
John spoke of his father. Do me the favor. A soft answer turneth 
away wrath. She wrote a letter to her sister* Sunlight falls on the 
castle walls. They stopped where night overtook them. I work for 
my uncle. Provide the stranger food. Deliver us from evil. Tell 
me the story. 

When we say, "Victoria, the queen," "Milton, the poet," "Hen- 
dricks, the governor," — we use the words "queen," "poet," and 
"governor," to show more clearly to whom the names " Victoria," 



14 LESSONS IN GKAMMAR. 

" Milton " and " Hendricks," apply; i. e., to explain or identify the 
meaning of these words. 

Such words are called appositive modifiers or appositives. 
Define an appositive. 

Write five sentences with appositive modifiers in the subject; five, 
with appositive modifiers in the predicate. 

A modifier may be two or more words connected in meaning. If 
these words are so connected as to express a thought they form a 
Clause. If they are connected in meaning without expressing a 
thought they form a Fhrase. 

Examples.— Mary sings very sweetly. The long expected summer came. 
The tree that fell was an elm. I know why they came. 

The words, very sweetly and long expected, are here used as phrase mod- 
ifiers. The words that fell, and why they came, form clause modifiers. 

Distinguish the phrase and the clause modifiers in the following: 

The class solved a difficult problem. They heard Webster, the 
great orator. This is the lesson that I recited. James w T rote a long 
letter to his aged father. Washington, the first president, served 
eight years. I know* John is studious. A king who is just, helps the 
people. He is the man who rendered the service. John rides that 
wild horse. The place where he fell is unknown. 

Select from your reader ten sentences containing phrase modifiers; 
and ten, containing clause modifiers. 

Write five sentences in which phrase modifiers are used in the 
subject; five, in which clause modifiers are used in the predicate. 

The copula may contain a phrase or a clause modifier. 

Examples. — It is without doubt a fine picture. If he had been here, the 
accident would have been prevented. 

Any element or part of an element of a sentence, that of 
itself expresses a thought, forms a clause. 

Stated differently,— 

A sentence that forms an element or a part of an element 
of another sentence, is a clause. 

Note.— The principal part of an element of the sentence is eometimes a phrase 
or a clause. 



LrESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 15 

Examples. — Mary is in the room. The statement is, matter is inde- 
structible. 

Why do we use modifying words? 



CHAPTER VI. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Nouns and Pronouns. 

Concretes and Abstracts are either expressed by words which are 
names of these objects; as, Henry, book, goodness; or they are 
expressed by words which denote the objects without naming them * 
as, 7, thou, he, she, it, they, who, which, what, that. 

Words that are names of concretes and abstracts are called Nouns. 
Words that denote these objects without naming them are called 
Pronouns. 

A Noun is a word that is the name of an object. 

A Pronoun is a word that denotes an object without 
naming it. 

Exercise. 

Select the nouns and the pronouns in the following, and tell to 
what element of the sentence they belong: 

We all consented. Columbus was a native of Genoa. He ran for- 
ward and kissed him. An unyielding firmness was displayed* 
While the bridegroom tarried they all slumbered and slept He 
who will not be ruled by the rudder must be ruled by the mast. 
The deafening waves dash angrily. Charity begins at home, but it 
should not stay there. 

Dear little blossoms down under the snow, 
You must be weary of winter I know. 

The subject of thought is always a concrete or an abstract object j 
hence a word that is the principal part of the subject of the sentence 
is always a noun or a pronoun. 



16 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR, 

The noun is used in other parts of the sentence, but since it 
names that of which something may be predicated, it is properly a 
subject-word. 

Another definition of the noun is, A word which is properly a subject 
word. 

Nouns that name concretes are called concrete nouns; 
those that name abstracts are called abstract nouns. 

Exercise. 

Point out the concrete and abstract nouns in the following: 
The trees are in their fullest foliage. The multitude ran before 
him. Gloom filled every house. The bees make a perpetual mur- 
mur of delight. Each moment is a perfumed rose. Labor disgraces 
no man. Even the green trees partake the deep contentment. The 
woods are gay with the clustered flowers of the laurel. When the 
righteous are in authority, the people rejoice. Kindness of manner 
makes politeness. The acquisition of knowledge is one of the most 
pleasing employments of the human mind. Rivulets should send a 
voice of gladness from their winding paths. 

" And the flakes of spray that were jerked away 
From the froth on the lip of the bleak blue sea, 
Were sometimes flung by the wind as it sung 
Over turret, and terrace, and balcony." 

Note.— Phrases and clauses may be used as n-ouns. 

Examples. — To err is human. To be idle is wrong. Why he went 
is not known. 

Adjectives. 

Attributes of concretes and of abstracts are expressed by words 
that modify the meaning of the subject-word or noun ; as, Brave 
men fell. He was a brave man. White lilies are beautiful. 

They may also be expressed by words that are used as the prin- 
cipal part of the uncombined attributive predicate 5 as, The men are 
brave. The lilies are white. 

Such words are called Adjectives, 

An Adjective is a word which modifies the meaning 
of the noun, or that is used as the principal part of an 
uncombined attributive predicate. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 17 

Exercise. 

Write five sentences in which adjectives are used to modify the 
meaning of the noun; five in which they are used as predicate 
adjectives. 

We have learned that words may modify the meaning of other 
words by limiting their appplication or by making more prominent some 
attribute. 

Adjectives which modify the meaning of the noun by 
limiting its application are called Limiting or Definitive 
Adjectives. 

Those which modify by giving prominence to some attri- 
bute are called Epithets. 

Note— The word the which is generally used as a limiting adjective is sometimes 
added to the noun without modifying its meaning in any way ; as, The sun shines 
The earth is round. When used in this way this word is called by grammarians 
a word of euphony. 

Define a predicate adjective. 

Classify the adjectives in the following sentences: 

The dead leaves fall. The house was cheerless. The vivid light- 
ning flashes. Every drop is musical. That fragile violet was crushed. 
He is an honest man. The snow is every where. Pure water is 
tasteless. She found rest in the silent grave. The flowing stream is 
clear. Before the journey was completed, black night was upon us. 
Kind, loving nature covers the dead giant. The fragrant arbutus 
grows in New England. The trembling leaves indicate a gentle 
breeze. The golden ripple on the wall came back again. It is the 
sun, the beautiful, bright, round sun. I had a dream, a strange, 
wild dream. Life flowed on like a sunny, babbling brpok. The 
solemn death watch clicked the hour she died. 

" The pretty stream, the flattered stream, 
The shy, yet unreluctant stream.'* 

" An unr ember ed Past 
Broods like a presence mid the long gray boughs 
Of this old tree, which has out-lived so long 
The flitting generations of mankind." 

41 Pale she was as the bramble blooms, 
That fill the long fields with their faint perfumes." 
2 



18 LESSONS IN GKAMMAR. 

Verbs. 

We have seen that the copula of the sentence may be combined 
with the predicate, or it may be a separate word. Whether separate 
or combined the word used as the copula is called a verb. 

A Verb is a word that is used as the copula of the 
sentence. 

Since the copula of the sentence always expresses the relation dis- 
cerned between the subject and predicate of thought the verb may 
be defined thus : — 

A Verb is a word which expresses the relation discerned 
between the subject and predicate of thought. 

A verb that is used only as the copula is a Pure Verb. 

A verb that contains both copula and predicate is a Pred- 
icate Verb or an Attributive Verb. 

Write five sentences containing pure verbs; five containing attrib- 
utive verbs. Select ten sentences of each class from your reading 
lesson. 

Both pure and attributive verbs may consist of more than one 
word ; as, will be, will be studying, is studying, shall have been, shall have been 
studying. Of these examples the first and fourth are pure verbs ; the 
second, third, and fifth are attributive verbs. 

Exercise. 

Point out the verbs consisting of more than one word in the fol- 
lowing : 

Classify all the verbs as Pure or Attributive. 

The leaves fall. The melon is ripe. The day advances. Mary is 
thinking. The rain is falling. Youth fades. Summer will have 
passed. The grass will be green again. Many words darken speech. 
The sick child is patient. The trees in winter are bare. The people 
have been conquered. Disasters will reach both great and small. A 
sentence is a group of words expressing a thought. He will be 
returning to his home. Shining stars are worlds far off. The leaves 
are trembling in the wind. I have read of the luxuriant foliage of 
Brazil. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 19 

Adverbs and Modals. 

It has been shown in the preceding exercises that attributes of 
concretes and abstracts are expressed by two classes of words ; viz , 
Adjectives and Attributive Verbs. 

We have also seen that there is a class of words which express 
attributes of other attributes. Examples.— Mary studies faithfully. 
She is very weak. An unusually large crop was produced. 

The words faithfully, very, and unusually — which express attributes of 
other attributes — modify the meaning of the attribute words to 
which they are added. These words are called Adverbs. 

An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of an 

attribute word ; 

' or, 

An adverb is a word that expresses an attribute of an 

attribute. 

Since Adjectives, Attributive Verbs, and Adverbs express attri- 
butes, they are modified by Adverbs. 

Exercise. 

Point out the adverbs in the following, and state whether they 
modify the meaning of Adjectives, Attributive Verbs, or Adverbs: 

She listens attentively. The river is very deep. A peculiar! v 
interesting story was told. He speaks quite fluently. He was 
extremely prodigal. It can be defended too warmly. Those lofty 
trees wave proudly. The bricks are laid very firmly. Wonderfully 
beautiful clouds floated about the clear mountain peak. I shall study 
here- Human prudence should be rightly understood. A swiftly 
flowing stream is beautiful. She decided too hastily. They partially 
comprehended the question, The vine still clings to the moldering 
wall. Virtue is often neglected. On the north the hills rise 
abruptly. The hall was brilliantly illuminated and closely packed. 

Note. — Words usually adverbs sometimes perform the office of an Adjective. 
When so used they should be classed as Adjectives. 

Examples :— John is here. Henry is there. The words here and there are used 
in these sentences as predicate adjectives. 

State the resemblances and differences between Adjectives and 
Adverbs. 



20 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR, 

From the preceding discussions it follows that all words which 
modify the meaning of the subject or the non attributive predicate 
are Adjectives; and that those modifying Attributive predicates are 
Adverbs. We have yet to classify copula modifiers. Words used as 
modifiers of this element of the sentence are called Models. In the 
sentences, "That is probably true" "Perhaps he will go." "The 
report is probably incorrect," the words possibly, perhaps, and probably 
are used as Modals. 

A Modal as a word used to modify the meaning of the 

copula. 

Exercise. 

Distinguish the Modals from the Adverbs in the following sen- 
tences : 

It is certainly late. The rose is delicately tinted. He spoke truly. 
Truly, God is good. Undoubtedly, it is a difficult task. Perhaps I 
shall go to-morrow. The sun will surely rise. He finally started. 
Possibly, we may fail. Henry is nearly over the Atlantic. They 
will assuredly be destroyed. I am not going. He is truly brave. 
The story really is true. The story is really true. 

Phrases and clauses may be used as Adjectives, Adverbs, 
or Modals. 

Examples. — We left on Tuesday. We shall go when you come. The 
story without doubt is false. 1 shall go if you remain. Had he inquired 
he would have learned." A man of straw was prostrated. Ships that 
ply about Cape Horn must be strongly built. 

Preposition. 

l< The house is on the hill." "The book on the table is mine." 
The predicate phrase on the hill expresses an attribute of relation of 
the object house. The word on which is a part of this phrase shows 
relation between the objects house and hill. The phrase on the table is 
a modifying phrase, and the word on shows the relation between the 
objects book and table. In the sentence, "John spoke to James," the 
word to forms part of a modifying phrase and shows the relation be- 
tween the attribute expressed in the word spoke and the object James. 
"John is better than Henry." Here the word better forms part of a 
phrase and shows relation between two objects. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 21 

The words on, to, and better are alike in that each forms a part of a 
phrase, and is a relation word. The word better is unlike the other 
two words in that it expresses an attribute. The words on and to 
show relation without expressing an attribute. Such words as on 
and to are called Prepositions. 

A Preposition is a relation word that forms part of a 
phrase and does not express an attribute. 

Exercise 

Point out the prepositions in the following, and state whether they 
form parts of principal or modifying phrases. Designate the objects 
or the object and the attribute between which the prepositions show 
relation : 

The pencil is black. The sun is in the heavens. Burton went to 
Philadelphia. The leaves of the trees are withered and dry. The 
dog swam across the river. My sister is at home. I study at school. 
They traveled over mountains. " I bring fresh flowers from the sea. 
The forces of Hannibal were routed by Scipio. The sun is shining 
through the shower. The meadow is enameled with clover blossoms. 
The steed along the drawbridge flies. The bees find honey in the 
fragrant flowers. He spoke to John about his brother. That woman 
was the mother of George Washington. The woods against the 
stormy sky, their giant branches tossed. 

" From the hill-top looked the steeple . 
And the light-house from the strand, 
And the scattered pines are waving 
Their farewell from the land." 

" Our lives are rivers, gliding free, 
To that unfathomed, boundless sea." 

A phrase containing a preposition is called a prepositional phrase or 
an adjunct 

Write five sentences in which prepositional phrases shall be used 
as the principal part of the predicate; five in which they shall be 
used as modifying parts of the predicate; and five in which they 
shall be used as modifying parts of the subject. 



22 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

Conjunction. 

State how many thoughts are expressed in each of the following 
sentences and tell what words show that these thoughts are con- 
nected : 

The day dawned and we started. We must educate or we must 
perish. I go, but I return. He is happy because he is good. She 
works though she is ill. John will go, but Mary will stay. He was 
poor though he might have been rich. 

The sentence, "John and James are studious/' expresses two 
thoughts. That which is alike in both— the predicate — is expressed 
but once. If the two thoughts were expressed in full, the sentence 
would read — " John is studious and James is studious." The word 
and is used to show that the thoughts are connected. 

The sentence, " John and James are a handsome couple," 
expresses but a single thought; the predicate could not be affirmed 
of either John or James alone. The words John and James are both 
required to express the entire subject. Neither word however, 
modifies the meaning of the other; they are both required to form 
the principal part of the subject;— they express objects that are 
co-ordinate parts of the subject of thought. The connection of these 
coordinate parts is expressed by the word and. 

In the sentence, " Air is oxygen and nitrogen," the word and 
is used to show connection between co-ordinate parts of the predi- 
cate of thought. 

These connecting words are called Conjunctions. 

A Conjunction is a word used to show connection 
between thoughts, or between coordinate parts of the same 
element of thought. 

Exercise. 

Point out the conjunctions in the following, and state whether 
they show connection between thoughts, or between coordinate 
parts of the same element of thought: 

Mary learns easily, but she forgets soon. Mary and Jane study 
together. The pinks and the roses are fragrant. That is a red and 
white flower. Birds chirp and sing. Five and four make nine. You 
and I are going. We find flow r ers in the woods and by the streams. 
The great statesman and orator is dead. The moon and stars are 
shining. Bread and milk is excellent food for children. You may 



S 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 



23 



buy books or slates. A large and beautiful horse was killed. It is 
a hard case, still there is help for it. Henry and James are well 
matched. The scholar and poet was also the christian and patriot. 
The prudent and diligent man prospers. John and James are 
diligent. John and James are united in their opinions. The gov- 
ernment is constituted of the executive, the legislative, and the 
judical departments. A belt of trees and shrubs conceals the fence. 
Wheat and rye will germinate in a single day. Action and contem- 
plation are in no way inconsistent. Man is head, body, and limbs. 
Plato and Socrates were Athenians. The wall is brick and mortar. 
Our trials and dangers abound. 



Interjection, 

There is another class of words such as oh, alas, ah, hurrah, and 
others, whose use is to express feeling. The feelings expressed by 
these words are not elements of the thought, hence the words them- 
selves form no part of the sentence. They are called Interjections. 

An Interjection is a word used to express feeling and 
which does not form a part of the sentence. 

Give the literal meaning of the words noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, 
adverb, modal, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. 

The different classes of words we have studied are shown in the 
following diagram : 

| Concrete. 
f Nouns. \ 
'Object words. < [ Abstract. 

( Pronouns. 



Words. - 



Attribute words.- 



Adjectives. 



f Definitives. 
Ephithets. 



Attributive verbs I Predicate Adjectives. 

Adve r bs. 
f Verbs. 



Connecting words. ] Prepositions. 

• [.Conjunctions. 

..Feeling words — Interjections. 



24 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

Note.— Frequent exercises in the analysis of sentences should be given, which 
should be sufficiently exhaustive to test the pupils knowledge of the different 
classes of words used in the sentence. To avoid making the exercises too 
long the analysis might be limited to one or two elements, or to one or two 
classes of words. 

" The large man spoke harshly to the little child." 

The words The large man form the logical subject of this sentence. The word 
spoke is both the logical and the grammatical copula. The logical predicate con- 
sists of the words spoke harshly to the little child. The word spoke, is the gram- 
matical predicate. The grammatical subject— the word man— names a concrete 
object, hence is a concrete noun. The modifying parts of the subject— the words 
the and large— are used to limit the application of the noun man, hence are defin- 
itive adjectives. The adjective large limits by expressing an attribute that does 
not belong to the whole class of men and the word the by pointing out a partic- 
ular one of the class of large men. The grammatical predicate, "spoke," is 
attributive and is combined with the copula, hence it is an attributive verb.. 
The modifying part of the predicate consists of an attributive modifier— the 
word harshly-a,n& an indirect objective modifier— the words the little child. The 
word harshly modifies the meaning of the word spoke by expressing an attribute 
of the attribute., hence is an adverb. The principal part of the objective mod- 
ifier—the word child is a concrete noun. The words the and little modify the 
meaning of the noun child by limiting its application, hence they are defini- 
tive adjectives. The word to is used to show relation between the attribute 
spoke and the object child, hence is a preposition. 

"They departed silently, at night." The predicate oi this sentence, the word 
departed, is attributive and is combined with the copula. It contains two 
attributive modifiers,— the word silently which expresses an attribute of quality of 
the action departed, and the phrase at night which expresses an attribute of relation 
to time. 

"The stream slides over the ledges and dips in the basin." This sentence con- 
tains two verbs, two prepositions and one conjunction. The verbs dips and slides 
are both attributive. The preposition over shows the relation between the attrib- 
ute slides and the object ledges. The word in shows relation between this same 
attribute and the object basin. The conjunction and shows connection between 
the thoughts— The stream slides over ledges, and The stream drips in the basin. 

Note.— When the sub-classes of words, and their grammatical attributes are 
earned, more can be told of both principal and modifying parts. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 25 



CHAPTER VII. 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

Concrete objects having one or more like attributes are on account 
of their likeness brought together in thought and viewed as forming 
a whole called a class. John, James and Henry are all devoted to 
study; because of their likeness in this respect they are classed 
together; the name of this class is student. These same persons may 
be eminent for political abilities; because they all have this attribute 
they are put in the class statesman. Persons having in common the 
attribute of being engaged in military service form the class soldier. 
Objects having the power of voluntary motion form the class animal. 

A noun naming a class is called a class noun. The nouns student^ 
statesman, soldier and animal are class nouns. 

Each individual of the class having all the attributes that give 
rise to the class, bears the class name. John, James and Henry may 
each bear the names student and statesman. 

A Class Xouii is a noun that names a class and belongs 
equally to all the individuals composing the class. 

Note.— The class noun is sometimes called a common noun because it belongs in 
common to all the individuals of the class. 

Exercise. 

Write five sentences in which the class noun is used as the princi- 
pal part of the subject ; five in which it is used as the principal part 
of the predicate. Point out the nouns thus used and state of each 
whether it is applied to the whole class, or to one or more of the 
individuals composing the class. 

Examples.— "The dog, the horse and the elephant are teachable and intelli- 
gent." "The boys are playing." "That is a new house." In the first sentence, 
the class nouns dog, horse and elephant, are each used to apply to the whole class ; 
the noun boys applies to two or more individuals of the class, and the noun house 
to one of the class. 

Besides having a name in common with the other members of the 
class each individual has a special name, given to it to distinguish 
it from the other individuals of the class. The names New Yon% 



26 LESSONS ING RAMMAE. 

Boston, and Chicago, are special names given to different individuals 
belonging to the class city. Such names are called Proper Nouns. 

A Proper Noun is a special name given to an individual 
of a class to distinguish it from other individuals of the 
same class. 

Exercise. 

Point out the proper nouns in the following, and state to what 
class each object named belongs : 

Italy coatains many celebrated cities. The Alps are in Switzer- 
land. The Danube is in Europe. Cora is attentive. Venus revolves 
about the sun. The St. Clair was burned on Lake Superior. Carlo 
barks. Dobbin prances. December is cold. 

Example. — " Sunday was very warm." The word Sunday is a 
proper noun; it names a certain day of the week. 

Note— A proper noun becomes a class noun when it is viewed as the common 
name of two or more individuals. 
Example. He was the Cicero of the age. The Johns are industrious. 

Concrete objects collected together in space form a whole called 
•a group or collection. The noun naming such a whole is a Collective 
noun. The noun swarm names a group of insects ; the noun grove a 
small collection of trees; the noun forest names a large collection of 
trees. These nouns are collective nouns. 

A Collective Noun is the name of a group or collec- 
tion of objects. 

Note l.-We have seen that the class noun will apply to any individual of the 
class. The collective noun will not apply to one of the group ; we cannot say of 
one insect of the swarm that it is a swarm, nor of one tree of a grove that it is a 
grove. The objects forming a group are collected together in space ; those forming 
a class may or may not exist together ; the basis of their union is the attributes 
which they have in common; they may exist apart, yet if they are found to be 
alike in one or more respects they are thought as belonging to the same class. 

Note 2.— A collective noun may become a class noun. When so viewed the indi- 
viduals composing the class are groups. 

Example.— "Several parlies of visitors arrived." In the phrase, "A large flock of 
birds," the word flock is a class noun if the mind is considering the flock named as 
distinguished from other flocks ; if the idea of the group is more prominent it is a 
collective noun. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 27 

State the resemblances and differences between a class and a col- 
lective noun. 

A concrete object may be viewed simply as a being— a material — a 
substance — or a mass. 

Examples. — Gold is valuable. Iron is heavy. Wheat is abundant. 
The nouns gold, iron and wheat name objects viewed in this way. 
Such nonns are called Miss or Material nouns. 

A Mass ^ oun is the name of an object viewed simply as 
a being or material. , , 

Note 1.— The nouns mind and spirit are mass nouns. The objects named by these 
nouns do not occupy space, but we think of them in the same way that we 
think of objects having extension. 

Note 2.— Mass nouns may be used as class nouns. 

Examples.— Mountain air. Ripe wheat. Fresh water. 

Exercise. 

Classify the nouns in the following : 

Patagonia is an unsettled region. A milkmaid poised a full pail on 
her head. The crowd was large. Snow is white. A hundred birds 
are singing as birds never sing except in the morning. God is eternal. 
Napoleon died at St. Helena. The northern States produce wheat, 
oats, rye, barley and, corn. A host so great as covered all the field. 
A great multitude was assembled. Down comes the flood, and 
every drop is musical. A pair of birds built their nest in the tallest 
tree. Christmas comes but once a year. Air, earth, and water teem 
with delight. Here they raised their little family. A Persian 
resolved to divide his goods among his sons. A couple of dogs 
barked furiously. The school was dismissed. I trudged off through 
the woods and meadows. Gold and silver are valuable. Water is a 
fluid. The army landed at the foot of the cliff. Spirit is active; 
matter inert. 

Abstract nouns are of four classes, viz. ; Quality Nouns, Condi- 
tion Nouns, Action Nouns and Eelation Nouns. 

Upon what is the classification of Abstract nouns based ? 



28 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 



Exercise. 

Classify the abstract nouns in the following : 

Brightness belongs to the sun. Sleep is refreshing. Running is 
tiresome. The nearness of the countries makes intercourse easy. 
His intelligence is remarkable. After a short struggle they yielded. 
Great was the grief among the village school boys. His influence is 
not questioned. The beauty of the landscape was pleasing. After 
deliberation she resolved to save her brother. The necessity for 
cleanliness is apparent. They have particular confidence in man. 
For the strength of the hills we bless thee. Let us share in the 
rapture of heaven and earth. Men have done brave deeds. We 
feel our own inferiority. The steamy air is all with fragrance rife. 
Proclaim liberty throughout all the land. The motion of the boat 
lulled him to rest. To the spirit belongs control. When the first 
soft days of spring come in all their gentle sweetness, and woo us 
with their warmth, and soothe us with their smile, then come the 
birds. Bitter mourning on the night wind rose and fell. Sickness 
and sorrow left their traces on her face. Is it to force us back to 
submission? Wild joy possessed each mariner's breast. Its magical 
call awakens the flowerets. Ask yourselves how this gracious 
reception of our petition comports with these warlike preparations. 

Change all the abstract nouns in the preceding exercise to forms 
that express attributes proper. 
Abstract nouns may be used as Class or as*Proper nouns. 

Examples.— His actions were inconsistent. Vegetable growth is effected by 
absorption and circulation. Faith, Hope, and Charity are virtues. Truth, Beauty, 
and Goodness are excellencies . 

f Quality. 



Abstract. 



Nouns. 



k Concrete. 



Condition. 

Action. 

Kelation. 
f Class. 

Proper. 

Collective. 
L Mass. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 29 



CHAPTER VIII. 

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

We have seen that all adjectives are modifying or predicate adject- 
ives; and that modifying adjectives are either definitives or epithets. 

Both definitives and epithets may be divided into smaller classes. 

A definitive may limit the application of the noun by expressing 
quantity; as, much snow; six men; many books. These adjectives 
express quantity in the mass or bulk, as in the first example, or 
quantity in number — numerical quantity — as in the last two 
examples. 

Exercise. 

Point out the adjectives in the following phrases, and state 
whether they express quantity in the mass, or numerical quantity; 
and whether the numerical quantity is expressed definitely or indefi- 
nitely : 

Eight days. Few persons. Many houses. Either book. Neither 
book. Four lilies. Some water. Some pencils. Any city. Any 
snow. All men. Enough rain. Enough houses. Every child. 
Both hands. Several trees. No wood. No desks. Much gold. 
Little silver. All things. Six hundred years. Whole amount. 
Whole number. 

Adjectives that express quantitity are called quantitative 
adjectives or adjectives of qua?itity t 

Those expressing quantity in the mass are called mass adjectives. 
Those expressing numerical quantity are called numeral adjectives. 
Numeral adjectives are definite or indefinite according as they express 
a definite or an indefinite number. 

Write five sentences containing mass adjectives; five containing 
definite numerals; five containing indefinite numerals. 

Mass adjectives limit what kind of nouns? Numeral adjectives 
limit what kind of nouns? 



30 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

Define an adjective of quantity; a mass adjective; a numera 
adjective. 

Note.— The distributives, each, every, either, neither, etc., are numerals; some of 
them are definite, others are indefinite. The other classes of definite numerals are 
the cardinals, one, two, three, etc., and the midtiplicatives, single, double, twofold, 
threefold, etc. 

Note 2.— The definite numerals a and an are two forms of the same word. A 
is used before words commencing with a consonant sound; as a book, a hero* 
a scholar. An is used before a vowel sound and before an aspirated h in an 
unaccented syllable ; as an ocean, aw hour, aw heroic act. 

Exercise. 

Correct the errors that occur in the following phrases : 

An hundred men. Such an one. A old man. A inch. A book* 
A honorable man. An elegant carriage. An heroine. A adjective. 
A historian. A honor. An humble heart. A happy life. A herb- 
arium. An useful exercise. An union. An holy man. An hireling. 
An empire. An hypothetical cause. A harmonious family. An 
official statement. 

A definitive may limit the application of the noun by pointing 
out the particular individual or individuals meant ; as, this book ; 
those trees; yonder house. Adjective that limit in this way are 
called demonstratives, 

A Demonstrative is an adjective that limits the appli- 
cation of the noun by pointing out. 

Note.— To this class belong the ordinals, first, second, third, etc. The adjective 
the when used as a definitive is also a demonstrative. It sometimes points out an 
individual ; as, The horse is running : and sometimes a class ; as, The horse is a 
quadruped. The word the is a less emphatic form of that. 

Write five sentences containing demonstratives, and designate. 

Some definitives limit the application of the noun to a certain 
kind or class of objects, by expressing an attribute that does not 
belong to the entire class named by the noun; as, diligent pupils; 
tall men ; dark days. Such adjectives may be called class adjectives. 

A Class adjective is one that limits the application of the 
noun to a certain kind of objects. 

Write five sentences containing class adjectives. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 31 

Note.— Nouns are sometimes used as class adjectives; as, a gold ring ; sea water; 
house plants. 

Nouns and pronouns denoting possession are used adjectively. In this use they 
are still called nouns and pronouns because they express concrete and abstract 
objects. 

An adjective may be used as a noun ; as, the righteous ; the rich ; the poor. 

Exercise. 

Classify the adjectives in the following: 

A dozen apples. These pictures. Much air. Warm weather. 
Gloomy thoughts. A former message. Yonder house. The same 
man. Sweet apples. Little money. Horse cars. Imagine a thous- 
and pictures of birds. That new volume is the latest edition. The 
entrance has a large double door. Many beautiful dwellings were 
destroyed. The old elm tree has fallen. The frost looked forth one 
still, clear night. The myriad lights bewildered him. It sought its 
final resting place. All the feathery throng shall taste the spirit of 
spring. The last stars were vanishing. The wigwam blaze beamed 
on the tender and helpless. They looked like little, floating, fairy 
isles of sapphire. The yellow foam was splashed to the tops of the 
highest turrets. All Rome sent forth a rapturous cry. Fairy faces 
shine in heaven's most distant places. 

" Fill every golden hour ! 
The glorious privilege to do, 
Is man's most noble dower." 

r Mass. 
Quantita- \ Numer- ( Definite, 
tive. (als. -J 

Demonstratives. {. Indefinite. 



f Defini- 
( Modify- \ tives. 
Adjectives. \ ing. I Epithets. I Class, 
t Predicate. 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 

"We have seen that the adverbs are attribute words, which modify 
the meaning of other attribute words. 

An Adverb may modify the meaning of another attribute word 
expressing a quality of the attribute, as : He acted wisely. Mary sings 
well. The children move gently. An adverb used in this way is 
called an adverb of Quality or Manner. 



32 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

Adverbs niay also be used to express amount, extent, degree, or inten- 
sity; as, much, more, less, wholly, enough, loidely, equally, very, exceedingly 
greatly, vehemently. 

They may express relation to place ; as here, there, hither, next; or 
they may express relation to time ; as, now, then, hereafter, repeatedly, 
always, seldom, first, secondly, once. 

Exercise, 

Write two sentences containing adverbs of manner; two contain- 
ing adverbs of amount; two containing adverbs expressing relation 
to place ; two containing adverbs expressing relation to time. Des- 
ignate. 

Note.— Phrases and clauses may be used to modify attribute words ; as " The 
child died of hunger." "I shall go when the boat arrives." A single word perform 
ing the office of an adverb, is called simply an adverb. Phrases and clauses per- 
forming the same office are called adverbials. 

The phrase of hunger, and the clause when the boat arrives, are adverbials. 

The adverbial of hunger expresses an attribute of relation of cause and effect. 
The adverbial when the boat arrives is an adverbial of relation to time. 

Exercise, 

Classify the adverbs and adverbials in the following: 

She spoke gently. I shall go instantly. The task is nearly done. 
He finally went. They came twice. You should write legibly and 
spell correctly. They were wholly overcome. The orator spoke 
vehemently. He was widely known. You are much deceived. 
The books are equally good. I will study more diligently. That 
man is much respected. They came twice. He was greatly blessed. 
You have studied enough. He will work to-morrow. I never saw a 
more industrious person. The stage started early. Duty is often 
neglected. The water flows there. Rudely blows the winter blast. 
The task was exceedingly difficult. I have been too idle. The 
weather is very cold. James spoke too abruptly. The boy is 
sitting there. The work is almost finished. They went silently at 
night. The house stood by the river. Her mother died when she 
was a child. Some trees are green throughout the year. She fainted 
from fright. You wrote in haste. I live in this place. 

Write fr^e sentences containing adverbial phrases ; five containing 
adverbial clauses. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAK. 33 

CHAPTER IX. 

CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS. 

There are many different kinds of relations between objects and 
between attributes and objects that may be shown by prepositions; 
this gives rise to many classes of relation words. The following is a 
list of some of the classes of relations shown by prepositions, with 
the words used to indicate these relations : 

Relations to Place : (a) Position; as, at, on, by, beyond, before, after, 
among, against, beneath, besides, behind, (b.) Direction; as, down, up, toward, 
to, along, across, through. 

Relations to Time: as, at, after, before, during, till, between. 
Source, Quality, Possession, or Cause: as, from, of, because. 
Motive or Aim: as, Miners delve for gold. 
Result: as, The man was frightened to death. 
Means or Instrument : Done by strategy. Written with a pen. 
Accompaniment or Connection : as, John went with his brother. 
Exclusion: as, All went but James. 
Identity : as, The island of Sicily. 

Exercise. 

Classify the prepositions in exercise on page 21. 

Note.— The same preposition maybe used to show different kinds of relation ; as, 
«' The children are at school.'" " They came at six o'clock." In the first sentence 
cthe word at is used to indicate a relation to place ; in the second sentence the same 
word is used to show a relation to time. 

Note 2.— The two objects, or the attribute and the object, between which the 
preposition shows a relation are called the terms of the relation. The object or 
attribute of which the preposition shows a relation is called the antecedent term of 
the relation, and the object to which the preposition shows a relation is called the 
subsequent term of the relation. 

Exercise. 

(a.) Point out the words in the following expressing the antece- 
dent term of the relation indicated by the preposition, and those 
^expressing the subsequent term : 
3 



34 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

(b.) Classify the prepositions, and state whether they form parta 
of principal or of modifying phrases : 

We went in the morning. The cattle are in the field. A tempest 
swept over the forest. There is much discouragement among the 
soldiers. I write with a pen. The rays of the sun are piercing. 
Seek for a higher life. The man is dying of fever. Everything was 
done in silence. The attack was made with great vehemence. She 
is writing at the house of her brother. The farmer cuts grass with a 
scythe. I went with my mother. The cars go from New York 
towards Boston. The question of order was next discussed. The 
wealth of the people was great. The youngest son of the king 
claimed the throne. A man of generosity would have done differ- 
ently. Work for some worthy end. The man was imprisoned for 
debt. The flash of their muskets lighted the street. The stars of 
heaven shall guide us. The island of Corsica is in the Mediterra- 
nean. 



CHAPTER I 

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

We have seen that conjunctions are words which show relation 
between thoughts. There are different classes of these relations, 
hence there are different classes of conjunctions. Some conjunctions 
simply indicate that two thoughts are connected ; as, The pencil 
and the book are on the table; others show the kind of relation 
existing between the thoughts connected. Those of the first class 
are called Copulatives. Contained under the second class are, — 

1. Ii/latives ; — those which show that one judgment is the reason 
for, or the consequence of the other ; as, I study because I must. It 
rains, therefore the ground is wet. 

2. Disjunctives ; — those which show that the relation between 
two judgments is that of alternation ; as, We must study or we must 
fail. I have not tears nor pity for him. 

3. Adversatives ;— those which indicate that two judgments are 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 35 

opposed, or that one judgment is opposed to a conclusion that may 
be drawn from the other; as, I go but I return. Though he studies, 
he does not learn. 

4. Conditionals ; — those which indicate that one judgment is the 
ground or condition for the other ; as, If it rain, I shall not go. Here 
the judgment expressed in the first sentence is the ground or condi- 
tion for the judgment expressed in the second sentence. 

5. Clausal Conjuctions; — those which indicate that one judg- 
ment is viewed as an object and is an element of another judgment • 
as, That the earth is round is believed. We all know that war is a 
calamity. Here the judgment expressed in the clause, the earth iV 
round, is the subject of thought; that expressed by the clause, war is a 
calamity, is the object of the attribute know. 

Note 1.— Copulatives, disjunctives, adversatives and illativesall show relation between 
thoughts that are co-ordinate, hence they are called co-ordinate conjunctions. 
Conditional and clausal conjunctions differ from these in that they show relation 
between thoughts that are not co-ordinate ; the clause introduced by a conditional 
conjunction is a copula modifier — a modal; that introduced by a clausal conjunc- 
tion is a noun. Neither of the sentences expressing thoughts whose relation is; 
»hown by a co-ordinate conjuction forms a part of the other. 

Note 2. — The words and, also, furthermore, besides, likewise, and others are used as 
Copulative Conjunctions; because, for, as, therefore, since, and consequently, are used 
aslllatives; or and nor are used as Disjunctives; but, still, yet, though, nevertheless, 
and although are Adversatives ; if and provided are Conditionals ; that, whether and 
if are used as Clausal Conjunctions. 

Exercises. 

(a) Use the conjunctions just named, in written sentences. 

(b) Write two sentences in which a clause introduced by a clausal 
conjunction is used as the subject of a sentence; two in which such 
a clause is used as the predicate; two in which it is used as an objec- 
tive modifier. 

(c) Classify the conjunctions in the following: 

The sun and the moon stood still. James or his sister will come. 
You should not waste your words nor your time. As the wind is 
favorable the ship will sail soon. We went notwithstanding it 
rained. You will be despised and he will be honored. Success is. 
difficult because many strive. I know not if it be so. Snow or rain 



36 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

'may be expected. Rise, for it is day. Touch it not, lest ye die. 
Home must destroy Carthage or Carthage will be a perpetual threat 
to Rome. The man is sick, consequently he needs help. His father 
pleaded with him but he would not listen. Either the universe had a 
-creator, or it exists by chance. They found ruin yet they were not 
cast down. That the earth revolves no one doubts. Since you insist 
upon it I consent. He said that he would go. All day long they 
were busy yet they never failed to warble. His step was firm and 
his figure erect, though he seemed old and wayworn. I have 
believed, therefore I have spoken. I know that I have not much to 
recommend me, nevertheless I wish to be loved. If all be well we 
-shall leave home next week. Whether he has arrived is not known. 
The wind has changed but it continues to rain. He said nothing 
more, nor did I. If it had been necessary he would have sacrificed 
Ms life. 



CHAPTER XI. 

CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 

Simple, Compound and Complex. 

State which of the following sentences express but one thought 
and which express two or more co-ordinate thoughts: 

War has ceased. War has ceased and peace has come. Spring 
<comes and the flowers bloom. A soft answer turneth away wrath, 
but grievous words stir up anger. None will flatter the poor. 
Talent is power, but tact is skill. James and Mary go to school. 
Cats and dogs are domestic animals. The sun warms and lights. 
You must pay gold or silver. The seasons came, went, and came 
again. 

A sentence^xpressing but a single thought is a simple sentence; 
one expressing two or more co-ordinate thoughts is a Compound 
; sentence. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 37 

A Simple Sentence is one that expresses but a single 
thought. 

A Compound Sentence is one that expresses two or 
more co-ordinate thoughts. 

We have seen that the simple sentence may have its elements made* 
up of co-ordinate parts; (See p. 22.) Any element of a sentence — 
principal or modifying — that contains co-ordinate parts, is a com- 
pound element. In the sentence, " You and I will read together, 7 * 
the principal part of the subject is compound; it consists of the 
co-ordinate parts " You" and " I;" the predicate can not be affirmed 
of either part alone. ''The book is cover and leaves;" here the 
principal part of the predicate is compound ; we can not say " The 
book is cover," or " The book is leaves." " A black and white shawl 
was worn:" here the modifying part of the subject is compound^ 
while in the sentence, "She wore a black and white shawl," the 
modifying part of the predicate is compound. 

Exercises. 

(a). State which of the sentences in exercise, page 22, are com- 
pound, and which are simple sentences with compound elements. 

(b). State which element of the simple sentences is compound. 

(c). Write five compound sentences; two simple sentences with 
compound subjects; two with compound predicates; two with com- 
pound modifiers. 

" It is, I think, the best that can be done." 

" This is, in a word, the true condition of affairs." 

" My lads, I have done." 

" John, study." 

" He is, John says, very industrious." 

By observing these sentences it may be seen that they differ from 
those we have studied, in that each has joined to it a part 
which is not its co-ordinate, and which forms no part of either 
the subject, the predicate, or the copula. The first sentence has* 
joined to it the words "I think." Combined with the second sen- 
tence is the phrase, ll in a word." The forms of address, " My lads, 5 * 



38 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

and "John," do not belong to any element of the sentences to which 
they are joined. " John says," is not co-ordinate with the sentence 
te which it is joined, and does not form a part of the subject, the 
predicate, or the copula. 

A sentence having joined to it a part which is not co-ordi- 
nate, and which forms no part of either the subject, the 
predicate, or the copula, is a Complex Sentence. 

Note.— A sentence in which a clause is used as an element is commonly called 
a complex sentence ; hut a clause thus used performs the office of a single word' 
and is regarded simply as a part of speech ; the sentence is not made complex by 
its introduction, Examples— " He who is industrious will succeed." " Flowers 
bloom when spring returns." " I believe he is honest" These sentences are all sim- 
ple; the clause "who is industrious," is used as an adjective; "when spring 
returns," is used as an adverb ; " he is honest " is used as an objective modifier. 

Exercise. 

Distinguish the sentences in the following as simple, compound, or 
complex . 

Avarice causes crime. The patient ox submits to the yoke, and 
meekly performs his labor. He who conquers his passions, over- 
comes his greatest enemies. I love thee, winter. Prosperity gains 
many friends, but adversity tries them. I know they will come. 
This is, said James, all I have. I disregard their imputations, 
because I do not merit them. To be candid, I can not believe it. 
When he had sold his patrimony, he engaged in traffic. Mother? 
he faintly said, come near me. He might have been guilty, but no 
sufficient proof could be found. The time, I say, has come. Nature 
never did betray the heart that loved her. I know that my 
redeemer liveth. 

"Soft is the strain when zephyr gently blows, 
And the smooth stream in smoother numbers flows." 

Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory. 

The sentence, " The apple is sweet," shows that the mind discerns 
that sweetness belongs to the object apple ; i. e., it shows that the 



LES30NS IN GRAMMAR. 39 

relation between the subject and the predicate of thought is known 
— determined. The sentence, " Glass is not opaque," also expresses 
this relation as determined ; but the sentence, "Is the apple sweet?" 
shows that the relation between the subject and predicate of thought . 
is undetermined, and that the mind seeks to know this relation. 

When the relation between the subject and the predicate of 
thought is expressed as known, the judgment is called a determined 
judgment; when it is unknown and sought for, the judgment is called 
an undetermined judgment 

Express in written sentences five determined and five undeter- 
mined judgments. 

Any element of the thought may be undetermined. The sentence, 
"Who struck John?" shows that the subject is unknown and 
sought for; the sentence, ''Where is the book?" indicates that the 
predicate is undetermined ; while the sentence, " What did he 
break?" shows that a part of the predicate — the object — is undeter- 
mined. 

A determined judgment is expressed is what is called a Declarative 
sentence; an undetermined judgment, or a judgment is which some 
element is undetermined and sought for is expressed in an Interroga- 
tive sentence -a question. 

A Declarative Sentence is one that expresses a deter- 
mined judgment. 

Or, 

A Declarative Sentence is one that shows that the 
relation between the thought subject and the thought predi- 
cate is determined. 

An Interrogative Sentence is one that expresses an 
undetermined judgment, or a judgment in which some 
element is undetermined and sought for. 

Or, 

An Interrogative Sentence is one that shows that some 
element of the thought is undetermined and sought for. 



40 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

Exercise. 

Write five declarative sentences. Write two interrogative sen- 
tences showing that the subject of thought is undetermined ; two 
showing that the predicate is undetermined ; and two showing that 
the relation between the subject and the predicate is undetermined. 

A sentence may express peremptory will; i. e, a command; as, 
•? Be quiet." " Attend to your own work." " Go." Such sentences 
are called Imperative sentences. 

An Imperative Sentence is one which expresses a com- 
mand. 

Besides expressing thought the sentence sometimes expresses 
feeling. If the feeling expressed is more prominent than the thought 
the sentence is called an Exclamatory or Emotive sentence; as, " How 
glad I am to see you ! " 

An Exclamatory or Emotive Sentence is one in 

which the feeling expressed is more prominent than the 
thought. 

Exercise. 

Classify the following sentences, and state, of each interrogative 
sentence, what element of the thought expressed in it is represented 
as undetermined • 

I am a poor man. Is the room warm ? Who will go for us ? How 
frightful the grave! Which is John? Bring me that book. Whose 
book have you brought? Clarence is come! Attend to your work. 
What will you take? How beautiful upon the mountains are the- 
feet of him that bringeth good tidings! When shall it be morn in 
the grave? I shall go to-morrow. What will you take? Speak 
softly. Shall I return the book? Calm was the day. Am I 
requested to go? Children, obey your parents. Oh, that those lipa 
had language ! Do you believe that the voyage will restore your 
health ? And Ardennes waves above them her green leaves. Go in 
peace. Whose book is this? Look round thee. Charge, Chester,, 
charge ! Was it from Heaven ? 

" Tell me not in mournful numbers 
Life is but an empty dream." 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 41 

Note. — All sentences should be commenced with a capital letter. 
Declarative and Imperative sentences should be finished with a 
period. Interrogative sentences should be finished with an inter- 
rogation point, and Exclamatory sentences with an exclamation 
point. When the name of the object addressed is used in connec- 
tion with an imperative sentence, it should be separated from the 
sentence by a comma. If the element which renders the sentence 
complex is placed between parts of the sentence, a comma should be 
placed both before and after it. 

Exercise. 

Capitalize and punctuate the following sentences correctly : 

has the king a right to transfer the crown the great golden eagle 
stooped down and flew away with something in his talons how 
beautiful is all this visible world cast your eyes sir over this 
extensive country cowley indeed used to call himself melancholy 
what terrors round him wait is this the character of british justice 
my lord we have stood here observing him how uncertain is 
human life 



CHAPTER XL 

ANALYSIS. 

Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its elements* 

Before a sentence is analyzed it should be determined : 

(a.) Whether it is simple, compound or complex; 

(b.) Whether it is declarative, interrogative, imperative, or 
exclamatory. 

The following method is suggested for the classification and analy- 
sis of sentences: 

(a,) State whether the sentence is simple, compound, or complex. 



42 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

(b.) State whether it is declarative, interrogative, imperative, or 
exclamatory. 

(c.) Name the three logical elements. 

(d.) Name the principal and modifying parts of each of these 
elements. 

(e.) Name the principal and modifying parts of each modifying 
element: — (1) of the subject; (2) of the predicate ; (3) of the copula. 
Classify each word. 

(f.) If the principal or modifying part of any element is a clause 
or a phrase, after referring it as a whole to the part of speech to 
which it belongs, separate it into its elements. 

(g.) If the sentence is compound, analyze each simple sentence of 
which it is composed, and classify the connecting words. 

(h.) If the sentence is complex, name the sentence proper and 
the element which makes it complex, and analyze each. 

(i.) Classify all the parts of speech. 

Example. 

"The sumptuous cities which have lighted the w r orld since the 
beginning of time, are now beheld only in the pictures of the histo- 
rian or the poet." 

This is a simple declarative sentence. "The sumptuous cities 
which have lighted the world since the beginning of time" is the 
logical subject; "are now beheld only in the pictures of the historian 
or the poet" is the logical predicate; the grammatical and logical 
copula are combined with the grammatical predicate in the words 
"are beheld." 

The noun "cities" is the grammatical subject modified by the 
adjective "sumptuous;" "sumptuous cities" is modified by the 
adjective "the;" "the sumptuous cities" is modified by the adjective 
clause "which have lighted the world since the beginning of time;" 
the pronoun " which" is the grammatical and logical subject of this 
clause; "have lighted the world since the beginning of time" is 
the logical predicate; the verb "have lighted" is the copula and 
the grammatical predicate combined. As predicate, "have lighted'' 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 43 

is modified by the objective phrase "the world;" the noun "world" 
is modified by the adjective "the;" * 'have . lighted the world" is 
also modified by the adverbial phrase "since the beginning of 
time;" the principal part of this phrase is the noun "beginning," 
which is modified by the adjective "the;" "the beginning" is 
modified by the adjective phrase "of time;" the principal part of 
this phrase is the noun "time;" "of" is a preposition expressing 
the relation of "beginning" to "time;" "since" is a preposition 
expressing the relation of "have lighted the world" to "the begin- 
ning of time." "Are beheld" as grammatical predicate is modified 
by the adverb "now;" "are now beheld" is modified by the adjective 
phrase, "in the pictures of the historian or the poet;" the noun "pic- 
tures," the principal part of the phrase, is modified by the adjective 
"the;" "the pictures" is modified by the compound adjective element 
"of the historian or the poet;" the nouns "historian" and "poet" are 
each modified by the adjective "the;" "of" is a preposition showing 
the relation of "pictures" to \ 'historian ;" "in" is a preposition show- 
ing the relation of "are now beheld" to "the pictures of the historian 
or poet;" "only" is an adverb modifying the adverbial phrase" in 
the pictures of the historian or the poet." 

A more common method of analyzing the above sentence is as 
follows: 

After classifying the sentence and stating the logical subject* pred- 
icate, and copula, proceed as follows : 

The grammatical subject is the noun "cities," modified by the 
adjectives "the" and "sumptuous," and by the adjective clause, 
"which have lighted the world since the beginning of time; " of this 
clause the pronoun "which" is the logical and grammatical subject, 
and "have lighted" is the grammatical predicate ; "have lighted" is 
modified by the noun "world," which is modified by the adjective 
"the;" the predicate is also modified by the adverbial phrase "since 
the beginning of time ;" the noun "beginning" is modified by the 
adjective "the" and the adjective phrase "of time." "Are beheld," 
the grammatical predicate is modified by the adverbs "now" and 
"only," and the adverbial phrase "in the pictures of the historian or 
the poet;" the principal part of this phrase, the noun "pictures," is 
modified by the adjective "the" and the compound adjective phrase 
<'of the historian or the poet;" the nouns "historian" and "poet'' 
are each modified by the adjective "the," 



44 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

This latter method of analysis may be expressed by a diagram as 
follows : 



Cities' 



the 

sumptuous 
( which 



! 



(world (the /the 

have lighted^ S < 

^(since) beginning ((of) time; 



<Jonly (the 

are behelds \ { 

)(in) pictures^(of ) t historianthe 

(or) ' 

poet <|the. 

The first method is preferable because the pupil is compelled to- 
determine every step by a careful analysis of the thought. It is 
probable, however, that the results obtained will not be so uniform 
as in the less complicated method; but this is not of so much 
importance as that the pupils shall be taught to see the influence 
of word, phrase, or clause, in modifying the thought. 

Exercise. 

Analyze the following sentences: 

In the reign of Henry II all foreign commodities were plenty in 
England. After I had visited Europe, I returned to America- 
Remember that you may be disappointed in your plans. I told him 
that I would go. Travelers can ascend by a winding road to the 
top of Mt. Washington. The climate of Florida is favorable to inva- 
lids. On Prague's proud arch the fires of ruin glow. The credulity 
which has faith in goodness is a sign of goodness. The noble Brutus 
hath told you Caesar was ambitious. This hour's work will breed 
proscriptions. The brilliant flowers of the tropics bloom from the 






LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 45 

-windows of the greenhouse. Kays which fall perpendicularly upon 
the earth are called vertical. " My son," said he, "did you ever 
hear of any who are called ungrateful ? " He who openly tells his 
friends all that he thinks of them, must expect that they will 
secretly tell his enemies much that they do not think of him. 
They were united hy ties of friendship and of kindred. One day 
the poor woman and her idiot boy were missed from the market- 
place. He gained from heaven, 'twas all he wished, a friend. The 
first works of the imagination are, as we have said, poor and 
rude. Peace rules the day, when reason rules the mind. Scarce 
would they see or hear their foes. Down bend the banks ; the 
trees depending grow. 

The teacher can make a selection of sentences from the reader or 
from other sources, if other or different sentences are required. 



CHAPTER XII. 

INFLECTION. 

There are certain changes in the meaning or relation of words that 
are best expresed by a change in the form of the words. 

Examples: — "boy" denotes one object, — "boys," more than one; 
"actor" names a male being, — * 'actress," a female being; "sweet" 
expresses simple quality, — "sweeter" expresses a comparison between 
two objects in respect of this quality; "he" denotes an object used as 
the principal part of the subject or predicate of thought, — "him" 
denotes the object of some attribute or relation. 

This change in the form of the word to indicate a change 
in its meaning or relation is called Inflection. 

Nouns may be inflected to denote, (1 ) more than one object,— Num- 
ber; (2) to denote a female being, — Gender; (3) to denote a relation 
of possession,— Case. 



46 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

Number. 

Number is that grammatical attribute that denotes 
whether one or more than one object is meant. There are 
two numbers, the Singular and the Plural. 

The Singular Number denotes that but one object is 
meant ; as, tree, man, boy. 

The Plural Number denoets that more than one object 
is meant ; as trees, men, boys. 

The Singular Number is denoted by the original and unmodified 
form of the noun. 

The Plural Number is denoted in different ways, which gives rise 
to the following rules for forming plurals : 

Rule I. To form the plural noun add s or es to the 

singular : as, ship-s, pace-s, box-es, glove-s, mass-es, boy-s.. 

Note.— S is added, (1) when euphony does not require an additional syllable; 
(2) when an additional syllable is required and the singular noun ends in a vowel. 
Es is added in other cases. 

Rule II. Figures, letters, syllables, signs, symbols, etc., 
form their plurals by the addition of an apostrophe and the 
letter s ; as 9's, +'s, A y s, pro's, y's. 

Rule III. In compound words, and when two or more 
words are used to name the object, the plural sign is affixed 
to the word of leading significance ; as, horse-thieves, brothers- 
in-law, the brothers Smith, courts-martial, Knights Templar. 

Exceptions. 1. A few nouns form their plurals irregularly,— gener- 
ally by some internal change in the word: as, man, men; foot, feet; 
mouse, mice; ox, oxen. 

2. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y to i and add 
es; as, fly, flies. 

3. A few nouns ending in / or fe change the/ to v and add s or e%; 
as, beef, calf, wife, life, wolf, etc. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 47 

4. Many nouns from other languages retain the plurals as in those 
languages : as, axis, axes; focus, foci ; basis, bases; datum, data. 

5. Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add es to form the 
plural: — except, canto, octavo, quarto, zero, solo, tyro, halo, grotto , and a few 
others. 

Note.— Some nouns have the same form in both numbers;— as, cattle, sheep, trout, 
etc. Some have a plural form, but have either a singular or plural sense ; as, 
news, means, pains, riches, alms. 

Exercise. 

Correct the misspelled words in the following and state the rule or 
exception violated : 

Heros, dalies, shelf s, stratums, cantoes, monies, chimnies, folioes, 
twoes, foots, seraphims, pennies, potatoes, echoes, bodys, the brother 
Browns, son in-laws, dwarves, flag-staves, loafs, beaus, memoran- 
dums, men-slayers, steps-son. 

Construct sentences in which the plural forms of the following 
words shall be used: 

Man, oats, grass, erratum, hypothesis, formula, oasis, focus, shears, 
sheep, fish, cattle, father-in-law. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

Gender. 

Objects are classified according to sex into males, females, and 
objects having no sex. This gives rise to the grammatical attribute 
of Gender. 

The gender of names of the male sex is called the 
Masculine Gender ; as, father, boy, man. 

The gender of names of the female sex is called the 
Feminine Gender; as, girl, mother, woman. 



48 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

The gender of names of objects without sex is called the 
Neuter Gender ; as, desk, tree, house. 

Many nouns name objects of either the male or female 
sex ; as, parent, child, clerk, merchant. They are said to be of 
the Common Gender. 

The Gender of nouns is distinguished in several ways: 

1. By inflection: as, actor, actress; host, hostess; executor, executrix; 
testator, testatrix ; hero, heroine ; Joseph, Josephine. 

2. By different words : as, boy, girl ; father, mother ; man, woman. 

3. By forming a compoud word, one part of which indicates the sex ; 
as, man-servant, maid-servant ; Ae-goat, sAe-goat. 

Exercise. 

Write the feminine of the following words: 

Nephew, negro, sir, duke, earl, gander, lad, director, prince, hero, 
lion, czar, beau, peer, drake, master, gentleman, landlord. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Case. 

Nouns may be inflected to denote the relation of possession ; as, 
John's hat, horse's mettle, ladies 1 shoes. This inflection consists of the 
addition, either of the apostrophe and the letter s, or of the apos- 
trophe only. 

Objects may sustain the relation of subject of the thought, or of the 
object of some attribute; as, Jo hn struck James: but these relations 
are not expressed by inflection when nouns name the objects. 

The distinction of nouns in respect of their relations to 
other parts of the sentence is called Case. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 49 

Note.— It will be seen that these relations are expressed in one of two ways ; 
either by inflection or by the position of the words in the sentence. If, in the sen- 
tence, "John struck James," the nonns change places, their relations are changed. 

There are three Cases to correspond to the three classes of relations: 
viz., the Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective. 

The Nominative Case expresses the relation of sub- 
ject or of non-attributive predicate: as, John studied his 
lesson ; John is a good boy. 

The Possessive Case expresses the relation of posses- 
sion : as, the boy's book ; the man's friend. 

The Objective Case expresses the object of some 
attribute or relation : as, he saw George in the town. 

Note— The word possession as nsed in the definition above must not be under- 
stood to signify ownership, since the man does not own his friend. The word is 
used in a technical sense; all similar relations to those expressed in the examples 
given, being called in grammar Possessive Relations. 



RULES FOR FORMING THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

Rule I. Singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in 
s add the apostrophe and the letter s to form the possessive 
case ; plural nouns ending in s add the apostrophe only : as, 
Charles's book, Burns' s poems, boy's class-room, men's hats. 

Note— In a few cases only the apostrophe is added to singular nouns ; as, con- 
science' sake,- Moses' law. This is because the additional syllable would not sound 
well. 

Rule II. In compound nouns the sign of possession is 
attached to the last word : as, the Duke of Wellington's 
sword, Bowen & Steibart's book-store, my son-in-law's house. 

Exercise. 

Correct the errors in the following : 

A mothers' tenderness and a fathers care are natures gift's to mans* 
Advantage. The portrait of her son's does not much resemble him.. 

4 



*W iifcSSONS IN GRAMMAfi. 

Neither John nor his brother's opinion was regarded. Moses rod 
' became * serpent. The judges decision was sustained. Robert 
^Burfts poems are popular. The shoe dealer sells men, and boys' 

boots, also ladies, misses, and childrens' shoes. 

Write sentences using the possessive case of the following com- 
pound words; 

Queen Victoria, John the carpenter, L. S. Ayres & Co., my brother 
George. 



CHAPTER XV. 

Person. 

Objects must hold one of three relations to the speaker, viz.: as 
speaking, spoken to, or spoken of. This gives rise to Person in Grammar. 

Person is that grammatical attribute that distinguishes 
4he object as speaking, spoken to, or spoken of. 

The First Person denotes the speaker. 

The Second Person denotes the person spoken to. 

"The Third Person denotes the object spoken of. 

The: person of nouns is determined by the grammatical relation 
that they hold to other words in the sentence: as, John, come here, — 
second person ; John came here, — third person; I, John, come, — first 
person. » 

Personal Pronouns. 

There is a class of words whose original use in the language was 

i to distinguish, objects in their relations as speaking, spoken to, and 

spoken of; as, "I," denoting the speaker; "you," denoting the 

object spoken to; "he," "she," "it," denoting the object spoken of. 

These words are called Eersonal Pronouns. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR, 51 

Note.— While the person of nouns can only be determined by the grammatical 
relations that they hold to other words, the person of Personal Pronouns can 
always be determined by their form. The same is true in regard to case. 

A Personal Pronoun is a word used to distinguish an 
object as speaker, person spoken to, or object spoken of. 

There are five Personal Pronouns, viz. : " I," to denote the person 
speaking; " thou," or M you," to denote the person spoken to; and 
the masculine form u he," the feminine form " she," and the neuter 
form " it," to denote object spoken of. 

These pronouns are inflected for case and number as follows : 

FIRST PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nominative, I, We, 

Possessive, My, Mine, Our, Ours, 

Objective, Me; Us. 

SECOND PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nominative, Thou, You, Ye, You, 

Possessive, Thy, Thine, Yours, Your, Yours, 

Objective, Thee, You ; You. 

THIRD PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. 

Mas. Fern. Neut. 

Nominative, He, She, It, They, 

Possessive, His, Her, Hers, Its, Their, Theirs, 

Objective, Him; Her ; It; Them. 

Note.— Of the two forms given for the possessive, the longer is used when the 
noun which the pronoun limits is not expressed ; as, the seats are theirs, not 
yours. 

The Compound Personal Pronouns, Myself, plural, Ourselves] Thy- 
self, plural, Yourselves; Himself, Herself, and Itself with the common 
plural, Themselves, may each be either in the nominative or the objective 
case. 



# 

52 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

Exercise. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences and give reasons : 

John and me went to town. The book is yourn, not his', nor 
theirn. Their's is a sad case. They prostrated theirselves before the 
king. It is not her's but yourn. He spoke to John and I. 

Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. 

There is another class of Pronouns that perform the office of con- 
junctions : as, the man that I saw; God who created you. They are 
called Relative Pronouns. 

A Relative Pronoun is a word that denotes an object 
previously mentioned and also performs the office of a con- 
junction. 

The word to which the pronoun relates is called its 
Antecedent. 

The Relative Pronouns are who, which, what, and that. 

Who is inflected for case only, as follows: nom. who, poss. whose, 
obj. whom. The possessive of which is whose. The other relative 
pronouns have no inflection. 

Who, which and what are often compounded with ever or soever. 
These compounds generally include both antecedent and relative. 

What, as a relative pronoun, includes both antecedent and relative ; 
as, " I know not what (that which) he says." 

As is used as a relative after such, or same ; e. g., such articles as I 
want. 

But is used as a relative in sentences like the following: "There 
was not a man of them but shook with dread." 

When is used as a relative in the following: " It is the hour when 
the nightingale's song is heard." 

Where is a relative in the following: '• This is the pl.ace where the 
house stood." 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 53 

Whence and whither are sometimes used as relatives; e.g., "They 
knew not whence he came or whither he went." 

Who and its compounds are applied to persons ; which is applied to 
animals and things ; that is applied to either persons or things. 

That is generally used instead of who or which, when the clause that it 
introduces performs the office of a Definitive Adjective \ as, He is the 
man that I saw. Bring me the book that is on the tab'e. 

Who or which is used when the clause is used as an Epithet ; as, Our 
Father who art in Heaven. The sun which shines in the heavens. 

Which sometimes refers to a whole sentence; as, I turned to the 
right, which led me astray. 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

When who, which, and what, are used in interrogative 
sentences to denote the object inquired for, they are called 
Interrogative Pronouns. 

Which and what are also used as interrogative adjectives; as, What 
man? Which house? 

Exercise. 

Analyze the following sentences and parse the Relative Pronouns : 

I venerate the man whose heart is warm. The fact that man's 
powers are limited, is not sufficiently recognized. The man that 
brought the letter was the carrier. The mail train which is generally 
so punctual, was late yesterday. The captain who is a man that I 
can trust, told me so yesterday. What did you come here for? It is 
in vain that you ask to escape. Health, which is precious to all, is 
invaluable to the poor. There is a sweetness in good verse which 
tickles even while it hurts. 

He that fights and runs away, 
May live to fight another day. 



54 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR^ 

CHAPTER XVL 

ADJECTIVES. 

Inflection. 

Many adjectives are inflected to indicate that one or more objects* 
are compared with one or more others in respect of some attribute. 

This comparison may be made in two ways : 

1. By comparing one part of any whole with other co-ordinate 
part or parts of the same whole: as, "John is taller than James." 
The two parts that make up the whole in this case are John and 
James ; and the part John is compared with the part James in respect 
of height. 

2. By comparing a part of any whole with that whole : as, the 
tallest tree in the garden. Here the whole is all the trees in the gar^ 
den, and the part, a single tree, is compared with this whole. 

The following sentence illustrates these two ways of comparing 
objects: " Solon was wise ; wiser than any of his companions; the 
wisest man, in fact, of his time." The first clause expresses no com- 
parison ; the second expresses a comparison between Solon, a part, 
and companions, another part; the third expresses a comparison 
between Solon and all men living, including Solon ; i. e., it compares 
a part with the whole. 

The change in the form of the adjective to denote the 
different ways in which objects are compared is called 
Comparison. 

The simple or uninflected form of the adjective is 
called the Positive Form : as, good, tall, wise, large. 

The Comparative Form denotes that a comparison is 
made between two or more parts of a class, mass, or group 
of objects : as, taller, better, wiser, larger. 

It is formed hy adding r or er, or the prefix more or less to the posi- 
tive : as, happier, more happy, less happy. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 55 

The Superlative Form denotes that a comparison is 
made between a part of a class of objects and the whole 
class ; as, tallest, best, wisest, largest. 

It is formed by adding st or est, or the prefix most or least to the 
positive : as, happiest, most happy , least happy. 

Note.— Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable are generally 
compared by adding r or er and st or est. Other adjectives are compared by the use 
of more, most, or less, least. 

A few adjectives are compared irregularly: as, bad, worse, worst; 
good, better, best ; little, less, least ; much, more, most, etc. 

Many adjectives do not admit of comparison: as, this, that, such 
superior, prior, minor, supreme, extreme, perfect, chief, final, etc. 

The Demonstrative Adjectives, this and that, are inflected for number: 
as, these men ; those boys. 

The Numerals, other and another, when used as nouns, are inflected for 
number and case : as, others may go ; another's care. 

Exercise. 

Correct the errors in the following: 

Most great abilities. Powerfulest man. The worser qualities. 
The hindest of the flock. The more junior of the sons. The great- 
est maximum of temperature. They were the greatest generals of 
any others in the army. Eve, the fairest of her daughters. The 
littlest was the amiablest. A more minor question. The extremest 
cold. 

Analyze the following sentences and parse the adjectives; i. e., 
state all the grammatical properties and relations of each. 

Point out the adjective phrases and clauses, and state the kind 
of attribute expressed by each : 

King Arthur lived a blameless life in the good old times. Caesar 
was the foremost man of all this world. Holy and heavenly 
thoughts shall consume her. Dryden, the poet, was one of the 
choice and master spirits of his age. Nimrod was a mighty hunter. 
Some pious drops the closing eye requires. The nearest and the 
remotest branches were loaded with fruit. He is the most powerful 
man of his company. The maximum of temperature was ninety- 
seven degrees. 



* 



56 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 



ADVERBS. 



Adverbs are inflected in the same manner as adjectives, 
to indicate comparison : as, well, better y best; fast, faster, 
fastest. 

Most adverbs are compared by more and most: as, swiftly, more 
swiftly, most swiftly. 

Exercise. 

Point out the adverbs, the adverbial phrases, and the adverbial 
clauses in .the following sentences, and state the kind of attribute 
expressed by each. Parse the adverbs : 

America was discovered by Columbus in the year 1492 He sang 
as merrily as a lark on a spring morning. He performed his busi- 
ness cheerfully and with despatch. On the morrow he will leave me, 
as my hopes have flown before. 

Many a time and oft 

In the Rialto you have rated me. 

Idle, after dinner in his chair 
Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

VERBS. 

Sub- Classes. 

We have learned (see page 18) that verbs are divided into two 
classes, viz. : Pure and Attributive. 

Many attributive verbs that express action or relation require an 
immediate object to complete the predicate : as, he struck the ground; 
rain moistens the earth ; he called the dog, Carlo. 

Many other attributive verbs do not require the addition of an 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 57 

immediate object to complete the predicate : as, the sun rises ; time 
passes ; many listened ; nations rise and fall. 

This gives rise to the classification of attributive verbs into Transi- 
tive and Intransitive. 

A Transitive Verb is one that requires an immediate 
object to complete the predicate. 

An Intransitive Verb is one that does not require an 
immediate object to complete the predicate. 

Note 1.— By an immediate object is meant, -one that follows the verb without a 
preposition expressed or understood, 

In the sentence, "He gave the book to me," book is the immediate or direct 
object, and me is called the remote or indirect object. 

Intransitive as well as transitive verbs may have remote objects : as, the boy leaps 
upon the horse ; here horse is the remote object of the intransitive verb leaps. The 
mark of distinction between these two classes of verbs is, that the transitive verb 
does not require a preposition to express the relation of the verb to the object, 
while the intransitive verb does. 

Note 2.— An intransitive verb is sometimes used transitively, when it takes an 
immediate object that specifies the kind of action expressed by the verb; as, he 
ran &race-\ she sang a song ; he strikes a blow. 

In other words, the immediate object of an intransitive verb is always of 
kindred signification to the action expressed by the verb, while the immediate 
object of a transitive verb is not, but is something external to that action. 

Note 3.— The different kinds of objects that verbs may have are as follows ; 

1. Specifying object : as, he gave a gift. 

2. Passive object : as, she plucked the rose. 

3. Remote object : as, I sold the horse to the butcher. 

4. Object of result : as, he bought the horse for service. 

5. Factitive object: as, they made him bite the dust; they made him rich. 

The factitive object expresses the effect produced by the action expressed by the 
verb upon the immediate object. 

Pure Verbs. — In addition to the verb be, which is always a pure 
verb except when it is used in the sense of exist, the verbs seem, 
become, appear, and some others are classed as pure verbs : as, he 
turned a god ; Wolsey became minister ; John appeared mistaken. 



58 LESSONS IN 6K&AMMAI6 

CHAPTER XVII I, 

Inflection of Verbs. 

We have learned that verbs can be modified by words, phrases, 
and clauses. Verbs can also be modified by Inflection. 

Verbs are modified by inflection : 

1. To denote the direction of the action or relation as to or from 
the subject, called Voice: 

2. To denote the time of the predicate, called Tense : 

3. To denote the mode of the judging act, called Mood: 

4. To denote the number and person of the subject. 

/ 

Voice, 

There are two Voices, the Active and the Passive. 

The Active Voice denotes that the action or relation 
expressed by the verb proceeds from the subject : as, Mary 
studies her lesson ; the horse runs ; John outran James. 

The Passive Voice denotes that the action or relation 
expressed by the verb is directed towards the subject : as, 
the house was built by the carpenter ; the earth is moistened 
by the rain. 

The object of the verb in the active voice becomes the subject when 
the verb is changed to the passive voice : as, the farmer sold the ox ; the 
ox was sold by the farmer. 

Note.— Since intransitive verbs can have no object they can have no passive 
voice. 

Exercise. 

Name the voice of each verb in the following sentences : 

I am writing. He walked two miles. I besought him to go. The 
wind blew a hurricane. His friend was brought with him. He was 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 59 

caught by the storm. You will hit the mark. The hall had been 
swept by John. The prize was won by the soldier. They had not 
been better instructed. The ship was strained by the storm. 

Tense. 

In the sentence, " I see the sun," the time of the action is now, in the 
present. " I saw; the sun," denotes that the action was in the past. il I 
shall see the sun," denotes that the action will be in the future. This 
change in the form of the verb to denote the time of the predicate, 
is called Tense. 

Tense is that inflection of the verb that denotes the time 
of the predicate. 

The time of every action must be either in the present, the past, or 
the future. A past action may be expressed as related to the present : as, 
1 have seen you to-day; or, as related to the past: as, I had seen you 
yesterday. A future action may be expressed as related to the 
future : as, I shall have seen you by to-morrow. 

The verb, therefore, may have six tenses: three Absolute, viz., The 
Present, The Past, and The Future; and three Relative, viz.., The Present 
Perfect, The Past Perfect, and The Future Perfect. 

The Present Tense denotes the present time : as, I see* 

The Past Tense denotes past time : as, I saw. 

The Future Tense denotes future time : as, I shall see. 

The Present Perfect Tense denotes past time related 
to the present : as, I have seen him to-day. 

The Past Perfect Tense denotes past time related to 
the past : as, I had seen him yesterday. 

Th# Future Perfect Tense denotes future time related 
to the future : as, I shall have seen him by to-morrow. 



60 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

Exercise. 

Name the tense of each verb in the following sentences : 

John had swept the hall. The veterans led the attack. He won 
the prize. They will be sorry when they shall see what they have 
done. He had driven the cattle under the shed. "We had not gone 
far before it began to rain. They drank too freely of iced water. 
No one has begun. The storm will have caught him before he 
leaves the forest. 

Mood. 

We have seen that a modifier of the copula of thought, or the 
judging act, may be expressed by words, phrases, and clauses : as, 
he will probably go; if he refuse, I will go. A modification of the 
judging act may also be expressed by inflection. 

When the judgment is unmodified, or when the modification is 
expressed by another word, phrase, or clause, the verb is said to be 
in the Indicative Mood : as, the horse runs ; he will probably* go ; he will 
be successful if he be honest. 

The verb is sometimes modified to denote that the judgment is a 
necessary one : as, two and two must be four. This modification is 
expressed by the auxiliary verb must. 

This inflection of the verb is called the Necessary Mood. 

Note.— A similar modification of the judgment is expressed by the modal, neces- 
sarily, when used to modify a word in the indicative mood : as, two and two are 
necessarily four. 

When the judgment is represented as possible but not certain, or 
as dependent upon that which is unknown or impossible, it is called 
a contingent judgment: as, he may go, but I think it doubtful; 
should he go 1 will inform you ; if he be honest he will be successful ; 
were I you I would not go ; although he slay me, I will trust in him. 

Contingency is expressed by the words may, can 9 might, could, would* 
should, be, were, and by the uninflected form of some tenses. 

The inflection of the verb to denote that the judgment is contin- 
gent is called the Potential or Contingent Mood. 

Note.— The name .contingent is more appropriate for this mood, but since the 
name potential is in common use it is probably best to employ it. It will be seen, 
however, that its meaning should be extended to embrace those forms commonly 
classed under the Subjunctive Mood. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 61 

The judgment may be modified to denote peremptory will, or 
strong desire: as, begone, thou villian ; come quickly, I beseech you. 

This form of the verb is called the Imperative Mood. 

The Indicative Mood denotes that the judgment is 
unmodified. 

The Necessary Mood denotes that the judgment is a 
necessary one. 

The Potential Mood denotes that the judgment is con- 
tingent. 

The Imperative Mood denotes that the judgment is 
modified by peremptory will or strong desire. 

Infinitives. 

In the sentence, " To walk is better than to run," to walk and to run 
are commonly called verbs in the infinitive mood. They are not 
verbs, since they do not express a relation discerned between a sub- 
ject and predicate of thought. They are more properly nouns, 
since they are used to name actions. 

Since Infinitive$ may express action, they may be modified by an 
object, like a verb: as, to speak the truth. is well; to act the truth is 
better. 

Infinitives are sometimes used as adjectives: as, time to come is 
called future. 

An infinitive may sometimes have a subject: as, it is wrong for 
him to act thus. The subject of an infinitive is always in the objective 
case. 

Participles. 

A Participle is a word derived from a verb, and used: 

1. To assist in forming the different tenses of the verb: as, I have 
teen; I am talking] he had gone. 

2. To denote an object of thought, or some modification of an 



.62 LESSONS IN GKAMMAR. 

object: as, walking is better than riding) an advancing army; a star 
seen through the cloud. 

Participles like infinitives may be modified by objects: as, I left 
him studying his lesson. 

A participle may sometimes have a subject; "He consenting, I will 
be present." 

There are two participles, called the present, and the past: as, seeing , 
seen. 

Exercise. 

(a). Name the mood of each verb in the following sentences: 

(b). Point out the infinitives and the participles, and name the 
part of speech for which each is used. 

To spare thee now is past my power. You like to hear from me. 
He made them give up the spoils. He felt the pangs of dying enter 
his soul. You must not attempt to envelop your ideas, or polish 
your taste, or refine your sentiments. May that blessing ever last. 
A man might have all these qualities and yet not be perfect. I would 
therefore exhort you earnestly. She could not be beguiled. By my 
J>eing kind to him, I have his confidence. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

Conjugation of the Verb. 

A regular arrangement of all the different forms of the verb is 
,called Conjugation. 

To make these different forms we use : 

1. The present and the past tenses of the verb ; 

2. The present and past participles ; 

3. The auxiliary verbs: must; may, might; can, could; shall, should; 
will, would ; have, had; do, did ; be, was. were, been* 



LESSONS IN GKAMMAE. 



63 



The Principal Parts of a verb are, the simplest forms of the present 
3nd past tenses, the present participle, and the past participle. 

Note.— They are called the Principal Parts because some one of them is the 
■is the chief part of each form. 

Regular Verbs are those that form their past tense and past participle 
by adding ed to the present: as, present, I love; past, I loved; past 
/participle, I have loved. 

Other verbs are called Irregular : as, I see, I saw, I have seen. 
Irregular Conjugation. 
To Be. 

Present. Past. Present Participle. Past Participle. 

Be. Was. Being. Been. 

Indicative Mood. 





TRESENT TENSE. 




Singular. 
1st Person, I am, 

nA T> rtVOrt „ f You are, 
2d Person, j Thou a ^ 

3d Person, He is; 


PAST TENSE. 


Plural. 

1. We are, 

2. You are, 

3. They are. 


Singular. 
1. I was, 
(You were, 
*' \Thou wast, 
3. He was ; 


FUTURE TENSE. 


Plural. 

1. We were, 

2. You were, 

3. They were. 


Singular. 
1. I shall be, 
f You will be, 
z ' \ Thou wilt be, 
3. He will be ; 




Plural. 

1. We shall be, 

2. You will be, 
3- They will be 



64 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 



When determination is to be expressed as well as future time, the 
following forms are used for the future tense : 



Singular. 

I will be, 
f You shall be, 
\ Thou shalt be, 

He shall be ; 



Singular. 

I have been, 
f You have been, 
t Thou hast been, 

He has been ; 



Siitgular. 
I had been, 
You had been, 
Thou hadst been, 
He had been; 



PRESENT PERFECT. 



PAST PERFECT. 



Plural. 

1. We will be, 

2. You shall be, 

3. They shall be. 

Plural. 

1. We have been, 

2. You have been, 

3. They have been. 

Plural. 

1. We had been, 

2. You had been, 

3. They had been* 



2. 



FUTURE PERFECT. 



Singular, 

I shall or will have been, 
f You will or shall have been, 
\ Thou wilt or shalt have been, 

He will or shall have been; 



Plural. 
We shall or will have been, 
You will or shall have been. 
He will or shall have been. 



Necessary Mood. 



Singular. 
I must be, 
You must be, 
Thou must be, 
He must be; 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Plural. 

1. We must be, 

2. You must be, 

3. They must be. 



PRESENT PERFECT. 



1. I must have been, 1. 

2. You or thou must have been, 2. 

3. He must have been ; 3. 



Plural. 
We must have been, 
You must have been, 
They must have been. 



Potential Mood. 



i. 

2. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 

I may or can be, 
f You may or can be, 
\ Thou mayst or canst be, 

He may or can be; 



Plural. 

1. We may or can be, 

2. You may or can be, 

3. They may or can be. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 



65 



Another form of this tense is as follows: 



l. 

2. 



Singular. 

I be, 
f You be, 
( Thou be, 

He be; 



Plural. 

1. We be, 

2. You be, 

3. They be. 



PAST TENSE. 

Singular, Plural. 

I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or should 
be, be, 

f You might, could, would, or 

J should be, 2. You might, could, would, or should! 
] Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, be, 

[ or shouldst be, 

He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or should! 
should be; be. 



Another form of this tense is as follows : 



l. 

2. 

3. 



Singular. 

I were, 
f You were, 
1 Thou wert, 

He were; 



Plural, 

1. We were,. 

2. You were,. 

3. They weret. 



PRESENT PERFECT. 



1. 
2. 
3. 



Singular. 

I may or can have been, 
f You may or can have been, 
\ Thou mayst or canst have been, 

He may or can have been, 



Plural. 

1. We may or can have been, 

2. You may or can have been, 

3. They may or can have been, 



PAST PERFECT. 



Singular. 
I might, could, would, or should 

have been, 
You might, could, would, or 

should have been, 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 
or shouldst have been, 
He might, could, would, or 

should have been ; 



Plural. 
We might, could, would, or should, 
have been, 

You might, could, would, or should! 
have been, 



They might, could, 
should have been. 



would, or 



Note. —The definitions heretofore given of the different tenses apply only to 
the tenses of the indicative mood. For the sake of convenience the same names* 
are given to the other verb forms. 



66 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 



Imperative Mood. 

PKESENT TENSE. 



Plural. 
2. Be (ye or you). 



Singular. 
2. «Be (thou or you). 

Infinitives. 

Present, to be; perfect, to have been. 

Participles. 

Present, being , past, been ; perfect, having been. 

The following are the tense forms in the first person, of the irregular 
verb to see, in both the active and the passive voice : 



ACTIVE VOICE. 



I see. 



I saw. 



I shall see. 



I have seen. 



I had seen. 



I shall see. 



Present Tense. 

Past Tense. 
Future Tense. 
Present Perfect. 

Past Perfect. 
Future Perfect. 

Potential Mood. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 



I am seen. 



I was seen. 



I shall be seen. 



I have been seen. 



I had been seen. 



I shall be seen. 



Present Tense. 

I may or can see. I may or can be seen. 

Past Tense. 

I might, could, would, or should see. I might, could, would, or should be 

seen. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 67 

Present* Perfect 
I may or can have seen. I may or can have been seen. 

Past Perfect. 
I might, could, etc. have seen. I might, could, etc. have been seen. 

Another way of expressing contingency is by the use of the 
sininflected forms of the different tenses : as, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I see, 1. We see, 

2. Thou or you see, 2. You see, 

3. He see; 3. They see. * 

Example : If he see him, he will inform him. 

Imperative Mood. 

Present Tense. 

2. See. ' 2. Be seen. 

Note.— Other forms are sometimes borrowed to express command or strong 
desire : as, thou shalt not kill ; may Heaven bless you ! 



Infinitives. 



Present 
To see. To be seen. 

Perfect. 



To have 


seen. 


Participles. 
Present 


To have be 


Seeing. 






Being seen. 


Seen. 




Past 
Perfect 





Having 


seen. 




Having bee 



68 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

Continuous Tenses. 

To denote continuous time, some form of the auxiliary verb be, and 
the present participle are employed : as, 1 am reading, I was reading, 1 
have been reading, 1 shall have been reading, 1 may be reading, etc. 

In a few verbs some of the tenses are wanting: ought has but two* 
tenses, the present and the past; beware is used in but few of the 
tenses. Such verbs are called Defective Verbs. 

The conjugation of the regular verb is in every respect similar to 
that of the irregular verb. 

To determine whether a verb is regular or irregular, teachers and 
pupils are referred to the dictionary. 

Exercise. 

Name the voice, mood, tense, person and number of each verb in the 
following sentences : 

I am writing. He walked two miles. They drank water too 
freely. We had not gone before it began to rain. You will have 
seen him before I return. The boys have learned their lessons. I 
shall not go to day. They durst not betray him. He abides in 
town. His iriend was induced to go. She has just completed her 
work. John had finished reading before I entered. I shall drown ; 
nobody will help me. To spare thee now is past my power. Though 
the event is possible it is hardly probable. I know not if it be so. 
I feared lest they should arrive and find us unprepared. It is and 
must be true. He may have erred. He that is his own foe will 
assuredly be destroyed. By suffering we may possibly avoid sin- 
ning; but by sinning we certainly can not avoid suffering. If 
Luther had been born in the tenth century, he would have effected 
no reformation. We may die, it may be, ignominiously and on the 
scaffold. Would you listen to conscience, it would tell you whether 
you really do as you would be done by. Were you omniscient you 
might be allowed to rule. Had he gone farther he might have fared 
worse. Whether he confess or not, the truth will certainly be dis- 
covered. 

Analyze the above sentences. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 69 

Correct the errors in the forms of the verbs in the following sentences : 

He has abided here a long time. They begun wrong. They 
"blowed the trumpet long and loud. The police brung him to the 
station. She had catched cold. They come home an hour ago. He 
done the job yesterday. They drunk no cider. The boy had ate 
green apples and had fell sick. The stream was froze over. The 
vessel laid in the harbor. I had never saw such a sight before. I 
seen him do it. The man had stole two watches. She has spoke but 
once. He had come some hours before. If he is honest he will be 
successful. If I was you, I would not do it. Although he slays me 
yet will I trust in him. I will be drownded ; nobody shall help me. 



CHAPTER XX. 

SYNTAX.— CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 

Concord. 

The following rules should be observed in the construction of sen- 
tences : 

Rule I. — The subject of a verb is put in the nominative case. 

Rule II. — The subject of an infinitive is put in the objective case: 
as, " For him to act thus is ungrateful." 

Note.— The particle for in this sentence is an expletive used to introduce the 
sentence. 

Rule III.— The subject of a participle used as a noun is in the 
possessive case : as, " I objected to his going." 

Rule IV. — A noun or pronoun used as a predicate is put in the 
same case as the subject: as, " The men were they whom I saw; " "I 
knew it to be him" 

Note.— In the last sentence, "it to him," is an infinitive clause of which it is 
3;he subject and him is the predicate. 



70 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

Rule V. — A verb must be in the same number and person as the 
subject: as, " Thou art the man." 

Notes.— 1. When the same predicate is affirmed of two or more different subjects 
connected toy and, the verto is in the plural number: as, John and James are here. 

2. If tout one otoject is meant, the verb is in the singular : as, the great statesman 
and orator is dead ; the wheel and axle is a mechanical power. 

3. When two or more singular subjects are taken distributively, the verb is in 
the singular number : as, each man, woman, and child has something to do. 

4. When a collective noun is the subject, the verb is singular if the group or 
collection is viewed as a unit ; if reference is made to the individuals composing; 
the collection, the verb is plural: as, the congregation was large; the assembly 
were divided in their opinions. 

5. When two or more subjects are connected by disjunctive conjunctives, the 
verb takes the number of the nearest: as, neither the boys, nor the girls, nor the- 
teacher was present. 

6. In other cases the leading subject in the thought determines the number and 
person of the verb : as, they as well as I are interested. 

Rule VI. — Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in person, 
gender, and number. 

Notes.— 1. If the antecedents are of difierent persons, the pronoun agrees with, 
the first person rather than the second or third, and with the second rather 
than the third. 

2. When there are two or more antecedents connected by conjunctions, the 
number and person of the pronoun are determined by principles similar to those 
that determine the number and person of the verb having two or more subjects. 

Rule VII. — Appositives are put in the same case as the words that 
they modify: as, " The earth is the Lord's — his who made it." 

Rule yill. — Words used to denote objects addressed, are put in 
the nominative case : as, " Lift up your heads, ye gates." 

Note.— When a pronoun of the first person is thus used, it is put in the objective 
case : as, " O miserable me." 

Rule IX. — Words denoting the object of an action or relation are 
put in the objective case : as, " John gave him to me" 

Rule X. — The subject of an abstract is expressed by a noun or 
pronoun in the possessive case: as, " Mary's faithfulness was the- 
cause of her delaying the messenger." 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 71 

Note.— To denote the relation of possession between two concrete objects, the 
possessive case is also used ; as, " Mary's cousin ; " " The Czar of Russia's palace.' ' 

2. If the possessive phrase is composed of two or more nouns relating to the same 
object, the sign of possession is annexed to the last : as, " Mary, John, and Henry's 
father;" but if they relate to different objects the possessive sign is annexed to 
each: as, "Mary's, John's, and Henry's father." In this phrase, Mary, John, and 
Henry are represented as having different fathers. 

3. In the phrase, "The house of Mr. Stanton's," the particle of simply denotes- 
identity ; the expression is equivalent to " the house, namely, Mr. Stanton's." It 
does not mean the house of Mr. Stanton's houses, 

Rule XI. — The tenses of the principal and subordinate verbs 
should be in harmony with each other, and with the time expressed 
by the other parts of the sentence; as, "He affirmed that he would go 
to-morrow. 

The following sentences are, therefore, incorrect: 

I have been sick yesterday. If this should be done I will at once 
withdraw. He hid himself least he shall be impressed. I intended to 
have gone immediately. I intended to go the day before. 

Rule XII. — In compound sentences, like forms should be used in 
all the parts; as, " He stoppeth not to consider his way, but presseth on 
to ruin." 

Exercise. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences and state the rule 
violated : 

We was glad. You was there. He dare not do it. John or I is to 
go. The congregation were large. The Acts of the Apostles were 
written. Whom did he think was absent? By me being kind to 
him I won his confidence. Them that be wise shall be happy. 
They traveled as fast as him. He protested against them embarking 
in the enterprise. The party were brilliant. The audience was 
gratified. The man or his friends is to blame. The committee were 
divided in its sentiments. You who was present, are able to speak. 
Let every one esteem others better than themselves. One or the 
other will give their opinion. He is like a beast of prey who 
destroys without pity. Nero, who is a name for cruelty. Thou art 
my friend, else would I reprove you. Do you know who you are 



72 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

.speaking to? He did not know who to suspect. By observing of 
iiruth you will become wise. He spoke of Job, he who was so 
patient. They imprisoned Columbus, he who discovered a conti- 
nent. After I visited France I returned to England. He was absent 
this entire week. The day has not been so pleasant as I expected it 
to have been. He said he is in great haste. He professed to be very 
studious the day before ; but admitted that he has been very negli- 
gent yesterday. He will take due heed lest he falls. I told him 
that I will do it. He is so sensible of his guilt that he dare not 
ireply. Although he slays me, yet I will trust in him. Though he 
write well, he can not read it. Was he ever so great, such conduct 
would debase him. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Subject, Predicate, and Copula. 

We have learned that every sentence contains three elements, viz., 
.the subject, the predicate, and the copula. 

The Subject of a sentence denotes that of which some- 
thing is affirmed: it must, therefore, express an object of 
thought, and is either a noun or pronoun, or some word, 
phrase, or clause used substantively ; i. e., as a noun. 

The Predicate of a sentence denotes that which is 
affirmed of the subject, and must, therefore, express some 
object of thought, or an attribute of some object. 

When a predicate denotes an object, it is called a non-attributive 
predicate; when it denotes an attribute, it is called an attributive predi- 
cate: as, "the boy is a student;" "the boy writes;" "the boy is 
studious" 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 73 

The predicate may, therefore, be expressed by a noun or 'pronoun, an 
■adjective, or an attributive verb. 

The Copula is the element of the sentence that expresses 
the relation which the mind discerns between the subject 
and the predicate of thought. 

Note.— Objects and attributes may exist independent of the mind ; but it is not 
until the mind discerns some relation existing between them, that a thought can 
come into being. Hence this action of the mind is a vital element of the thought, 
and the word expressing this activity is an important element in the sentence. In 
the sentence, " The boy is studious," is denotes that the mind discerns that one of 
the attributes of the boy is persistence in study. In the sentence, "The boy 
writes," the copula and the predicate are combined in the verb writes. 

Grammatical and Logical Elements. 

Each element of the sentence may consist of several words : as, 
"The fairest way of conducting a dispute is, probably, to exhibit 
one by one the arguments of your opponents." In this sentence, the 
entire subject is expressed by the words, " the fairest way of con- 
ducting a dispute;" the thought-predicate, by the words, "to 
exhibit one by one the arguments of your opponents; " the judging 
act, by " is probably." 

Each of these elements has a principal and a modifying part; as, 
"way," the principal part of the subject; "is," of the copula; and 
" to exhibit," of the predicate. 

The principal part of each element is called the grammatical 
element; the principal part together with its modifying words, is 
called the logical element. 

Exercise. 

Point out the grammatical and logical elements of the sentences in 
preceding exercises. 

Grammatical Subject 

The grammatical subject may be : 

1. A noun or some word used as a noun: as, "The good are 
respected." 



74 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

2. Letters, symbols, signs, etc. : as, " The X's and the +'s resem- 
ble each other." 

3. An infinitive or participle : as, " To steal is base." " Tellings 
stories is pleasant entertainment." 

4. A substantive clause : as, " That he should act thus is unfortunate." 

Grammatical Predicate. 

The grammatical predicate may be: 

1. An attributive verb: as, " The horse runs rapidly." 

2. An adjective, or a phrase or clause used to express some attri- 
bute of the subject: as, "The apple is sweet." He seems to act hon- 
estly." 

3. A noun, or a substantive word, phrase, or clause : as, " It is 
he ; " " His duty is to go; " " The objection is that he is not honest." 

Grammatical Copula. 

The grammatical copula may be : 

1. The pure verb to be : as, " Sugar is sweet." 

2. The copulative verbs become, seem, appear, consists of, equals, is 
composed of, and the like : as, " Water is composed of oxygen and hydro- 
gen." " Great Britain consists of England, Scotland, and Wales." 

3. It may be combined with the predicate, forming. an attribu- 
tive verb : as, " John reads well." 

Modifiers. 

The subject, or any word used to express an object of thought, 
may be modified by an adjective, or by any word, phrase, or clause 
used as an adjective. 

An attributive predicate, or any word used to express an attribute 
may be modified by an adverb, or by any word, phrase, or clause 
used as an adverb. 



LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 75 

Note.— The words here, there, yonder, now, then t and others denoting relations to 
space or to time, are generally classed as adverbs. They are frequently used in 
the predicate to express an attribute of the subject: as, "The man is here." 
When thus used they are properly predicate adjectives. The mark of an adverb 
is that it expresses an attribute of another attribute: as, "The horse runs 
rapidly." In this sentence "rapidly" expresses the quality of the attribute 
expressed by the verb. 

A word expressing an attribute of action or of relation, may be 
modified by a word, phrase or clause used to express the object of 
the attribute: as, "He strikes the ground;" " To speak the truth is 
well;" "He said that he would remain;" "Deserving success, he 
obtained it." 

The copula may be modified by a modal, or by any word, phrase, or 
clause use as a modal : as, " He will probably go; " " He will of necessity 
go; " " He will go if it be possible." 

Modal modifiers are of three classes : 

1. Those that indicate the character of the assertion, in respect 
of its quality or degree: as, "He will certainly come;" "He would 
not act just as you have described;" "A is greater than B; much more 
is C greater than B ; " " I will trust in him although he slay me ; " 
11 The truth will be discovered whether he confess or not" 

2. Those that indicate contingency of the asserting or judging 
act: as, "He will possibly come;" "He will comet/ he be informed; 1 * 
" Our opinion, such a state of things being supposed, would be very 
different." 

Note.— The copula modifier in the last sentence is an abridged clause. It is. 
equivalent to, " if such a state of things be supposed." The subject of the parti- 
ciple in such clauses is said to be used independently or absolutely with the participle. 

3. Those that denote that the judgment is a necessary one: as, 
" He of necessity remains weak, who takes no exercise." 

Exercise* 

Analyze the following sentences : 

(An order and modal for the analysis of a sentence will be found 
on pages 41, 42 and 43.) 



76 LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 

Amid the roses, fierce Repentance wears her snaky crest. His 
purpose is to avert bad consequences. 

Leaves have their time to fall, 

And flowers to wither at the north wind's breath. 

Now, therefore, let thy servant abide in place of the lad, a bond- 
man to my lord. 

With droll sobriety they raised a smile 

At Folly's cost, themselves unmoved the while. 

Collecting, classifying, contrasting, and weighing facts, are pro- 
cesses made use of in teaching method. 

The boy stood on the burning deck, 
Whence all but him had fled. 

The rose that all are praising, is not the rose for me. 

How France was saved from this great humiliation, and how the 
great alliance was preserved, will now be seen. 

She loved me for the dangers I had passed, 
And I loved her that she did pity them. 

Disquieted by imaginary alarms, insensible to the danger that awaits 
them, people are taught to court that servitude which will be the 
source of misery to themselves and to posterity. Go into Turkey, 
where the Pachas will tell you that the Turkish government is the 
most perfect in the world. All that he does is to distribute what 
others produce ; which is the least part of the business. 

Here Cumberland lies, having acted his parts, 
The Terence of England, the mender of hearts; 
A flattering painter, who made it his care 
To draw men as they ought to be, not as they are. 

" Alas! " replied the adventurer, " I must submit to the conditions 
of my enterprise." If we had to walk a hundred miles, we should 
still have to set but one foot at a time. Return with him, young 
reader, if thou be walking in the same downward path, lest his 
dream become thy reality. 



PART II. 



A COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 



CHAPTER I. 

Relations of Beading and Grammar to Composition. 

1 . The results to be gained through the study of Grammar are 
two-fold : 

1. The student is taught to interpret the thoughts of others, as 
expressed on the printed page, by a thorough study of the influence 
of word, phrase, and clause, and of inflection, in expressing the dif- 
ferent modifications of thought. 

2. By learning the use of these different modifications, in express- 
ing the thoughts of others, he learns to apply this knowledge in the 
expression of his own thoughts. 

Primarily, then, the study of Grammar is the study of the con- 
structed sentence, for the purpose of learning to interpret the 
thought expressed by it. The secondary object is not less important, 
but holds a subordinate place in the teaching of technical grammar. 



78 COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 

2. In the study of composition the object is also two-fold: 

1. To teach the student how to think upon any subject ; how to 
collect and arrange the material of his thought with method, and 
thus produce clearness of thought. 

2. To learn to express his thought so that it shall be clear to 
others. 

Primarily, then, the study of composition has for its object, train- 
ing the mind to collect, select, and arrange thoughts. The second 
object is of equal importance, since it is only through continued 
practice in the accurate expression of thought, that we can learn to 
think accurately. 

Thus it may be seen, that, while grammar and composition differ 
in their primary objects, their secondary objects are practically the 
same. Nor do the primary objects differ so widely as the above 
statements imply ; since, by the study of the thoughts of others, as 
expressed in the sentence and in connected discourse, the student 
learns how to collect and arrange original thoughts in regard to any 
given subject. 

3. The primary object in teaching children to read is to give 
them the power to obtain thoughts from the printed page. This we 
have said is also the leading object of grammar teaching. Reading 
and grammar may, therefore, be considered as co-ordinate subjects in 
this particular. The secondary object in the reading lesson is to 
acquire a distinct enunciation and a correct pronunciation of words, 
and a natural and appropriate modulation of the voice. The com- 
mon error is to make these secondary objects the primary ones, and 
rely upon the recitation .in grammar to give the instruction neces- 
sary for a correct interpretation of the thought. 

The true view seems to be to consider reading, spelling, grammar, 
and composition as holding such intimate mutual relations, that 
each should be taught " in the presence " of the others. And of 
such paramount importance are the results sought by the study of 
language, both to the culture of the individual, and to his varied 
relations to others, that in every period of the pupil's school life, 
this study should have a prominent place. 

The following pages are designed to suggest a practical method for 
conducting the study of grammar and composition in the different 
grades of our public schools. 



COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 79 

CHAPTER II. 

First and Second Year Grades. 

The instruction in language in this grade should have for its 
object : 

1. To teach the names of objects, and attributes, and to call these 
words at sight. 

2. To practice the pupil in the oral expression of his thoughts 
about an object. 

3. To teach him, by continued practice, the proper form of verb, 
pronoun, adjective, etc., to be used in different sentences. 

4. To teach him to write sentences from dictation. 

5. To teach him to interpret the, thoughts expressed by the sen- 
tences in the reader. 

6. To teach him to spell correctly all the words that he uses. 

Much of this instruction is given in the reading lesson. There are 
other portions of it that can be best given in separate exercises. 
Conversation lessons should be given daily, in which the pupils 
should be taught: 

1. The plurals of irregular nouns; 

2. The form of the personal pronouns when used, (1) as subject, 
(2) as predicate, (3) as object; 

3. The proper form of the irregular verbs in common use in the 
the past, present perfect, and past perfect tenses; 

4. The correct use of a and an ; 

5. The proper form of the verb having a singular or a plural sub- 
ject; 

6. The correct use of these, those, and them ; 

7. The correct use of the interrogatives, who and whom ; 

8. The proper form for adjectives and adverbs; 

9. The correct use of as and like. 



80 COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 

This instruction should be given by leading the child to use the 
words in answering questions, and then correcting his mistakes* 
Any formal statement of rules should be avoided, the teacher rely- 
ing on continued and persistent practice for fixing the proper form 
in the pupil's mind. 

7. In the second year much practice should be given in writing 
sentences, both original and from dictation. 

8. The pupils should be taught a few choice selections of prose 
and poetry, which should be frequently repeated before the school.. 



CHAPTER III. 

Third Year Grade. 

The pupils in this grade, in addition to the usual instruction in? 
reading and spelling, should have a daily exercise in either written 
or oral composition. The exercises may consist of: 

1. Naming the parts of objects. 

2. Oral description of objects, the child composing the sentences 
that make up the description, in answer to questions asked by the 
teacher. The teacher should pursue a methodical course in ques- 
tioning upon every subject. The different objects in the school-room, 
especially pictures, make excellent themes. 

In studying a picture the teacher should question in regard to, (1) 
position; (2) form and size; (3) kind; (4) objects represented in 
fore ground, in back-ground ; (5) story suggested by the picture. 

3. Pupils should be led to study objects at home, and describe 
them from memory, in school; the teacher directing their study. 

The following is an illustration of a plan that may be pursued: 

Theme: Our Cat. 

(1). State color and size. 

(2). Name the parts. 

(3). Describe the teeth. 



COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 81 

(4). Describe the feet, stating the number of toes and arrangement 
of claws. 

(5). Describe the eyes. 

(6). State habits. 

(7). Relate some anecdote. 

4. Constant attention should be given, in every recitation, to the 
correct use of words in sentences. (See directions for first and sec- 
ond year grades.) 

€>• Pupils should complete at least one written exercise each 
week. 

The following method is suggested for developing a composition in 
this grade: 

Suppose that the pupil has been studying the eye of the 
cat, and has learned that in color it is a greenish yellow, having in 
the middle part a narrow black stripe running up and down. The 
teacher has suggested to him to examine the size of this black stripe 
in the day time, and in the evening, and he has found it to be much 
larger in the evening. He has been told the reason of this, and has 
learned how the cat can see in the dark. All of the information 
required should be obtained, before the writing exercise is com- 
menced. The teacher may then proceed as follows: 

(1). Ask where the eye is located, and how protected from injury. 

, Answers to these questions given by one pupil, and corrected and 
improved by the others, will form the first sentences in the composi- 
tion, which should be written upon the blackboard by the teacher as 
dictated by the pupils. 

(2). Question as to form and color of the eye, and write as before. 

(3). Question as to position, form, and size of the pupil of the eye. 
Write. 

(4). Question as to use and adaptation of the pupil of the eye. 
Write. 

(5). Question as to use of the eye. Write. 

The composition thus produced will be the result of the combined 
efforts of the school; the teacher simply directing their thought, and 



82 COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 

deciding when each sentence is in the proper form for use. The 
pupils should also dictate the spelling, capitals, and punctuation. 
The composition thus completed should he copied by each pupil. 
Later in the grade the teacher need only have the sentences stated, 
and require each pupil to write from dictation. It is believed that 
in this grade it is best that the compositions be all developed in this 
way, and that they all be uniform ; — the product of the entire school. 

6. Pupils in this grade should be taught to observe the use of 
capitals, punctuation marks, plural and possessive case forms, and to 
discover the rule for their use. They should learn: 

(1). That every sentence, every line of poetry, every proper name, 
and the words I and 0, begin with capitals. 

(2), They should discover that the apostrophe is used to show the 
omission of letters or words : as, e'er for ever, o'clock for of the clock, 
don't for do not, etc. They should also be taught the use of the apos- 
trophe to indicate possession. 

7. Sentences should be distinguished as statements, questions, com* 
mands, and exclamations, and the closing mark of punctuation for 
each should be taught. • 

8. A few carefully chosen selections in prose and poetry, should 
be learned by the school, and frequently repeated by different pupils. 

9. Every error in the use of words in each school exercise should 
be corrected, the pupil being required to repeat the sentence, using 
the correct form. 

10. Pupils should occasionally be called upon to re-produce in 
writing their general lesson, or some short story or sketch, read by 
the teacher. 



COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 83 

CHAPTER IV. 

Fourth Year Grade. 

1. Pupils in this grade should observe the rules for plurals, 
capitals, punctuation, etc., learned in the preceding grades. They 
should learn in addition: 

1. The rules for plurals, when the singular noun ends in y> and 
when it is a compound word. Irregular plurals should be taught. 

2. The use of the comma, (1) when a noun is used in direct 
address; (2) where there is a succession of several coordinate words 
or phrases; (3) where the order of the principal elements of the 
sentence is transposed. 

3. The use of the period in abbreviations, 

2. The work in composition commenced in the preceding grades 
should be extended to include: 

1. A written description of objects from an outline prepared by 
the school. Instead of developing the entire composition, as in the 
preceding grade, only the outline of it should be developed in the 
order in which the theme is to be discussed, and written upon the 
black-board. The pupil should copy this outline, which should be 
followed by his composition. This he should write without any fur. 
ther assistance from the teacher, except that she should help him to 
determine the correct orthography of words, and questions in the 
construction of sentences about which he may be ignorant Before 
beginning to write, the teacher should know that the pupil has the 
necessary information. The theme should have been assigned two 
or more days before, and the pupil instructed how and where to find 
this information. It should then be discussed by the school, and 
•each pupil be called upon to tell what he has learned. The teacher 
may then make such additions to this stock of knowledge as seem 
necessary. The pupils are now prepared to write, but not before. 

The following outlines may be suggestive: 



My Desk. 



1. Position. f Seat. 

2. Size and form. Back. 

3. The parts and their uses. \ Top. 

4. Design. I Shelf. 

5. Adaptation to design. [ Legs. 



84 COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 

1. Where found. 

2. Size, form, color. 

fHead.. 

3. Description of parts, and adaptation J ^ e ^ * 
The Camel. < to countr y, clima te, etc. ] ££- 

I Legs. 

4. Habits of life. 

5. Intelligence, disposition, etc. 

I 6. Anecdote illustrating the same, 
t 7. Use to man. 

Note.— The second outline is fuller than most pupils of this grade can complete, 
but since description is one of the divisions of discourse, studied in all the grades, 
this complete analysis is given here to avoid repetition, 

3. Pictures should be described, and stories written which the 
pictures suggest. No assistance should be given, other than general 
directions, in the composition of the story. It is intended as an 
exercise of the imagination, and the child should be left perfectly 
free. 

4« The pupils of this grade shonld be taught to write letters of 
friendship. The name and place of the different parts of the letter 
should be learned, viz. : 

1. Heading; consisting of place and date. 2. Introduction; con- 
sisting of the address and salutation. 3. Body of the letter. 4. Con- 
clusion; consisting of complimentary close and signature. 

Note.— In letters of friendship the address may be placed at the close, opposite 
or a little below the signature. 

The following is an appropriate form for a social letter : 

Indianapolis, Ind., 

Feb. 4, 1877. 
My Dear Brother, 



Mr. Henry Smith, Your loving sister, 

Dayton, Ohio. Mary Smith. 



COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 
The following is an appropriate form for a superscription : 



85 











Stamp. 




Henry Smith, Esq., 

26 Ohio St., 

Daytor 


S 

Ohio. 





Letters of friendship should be written in a conversational style, 
and be free from all ostentation. They should contain such matter 
as will interest the person to whom they are written, and should not 
dwell upon the writers troubles and grievances, nor his personal 
affairs, except so far as these are matters of interest to the receiver 
of the letter. 

In teaching this subject, the teacher should lead the pupils to 
arrange their topics in proper order, and to complete one topic before 
commencing another. This should not be carried so far, however, 
as to make the letter appear studied and unnatural. What one 
should write to a friend is what he would say to him, ^if he were 
present. 

Note.— Teachers will fine much valuable information in a little book, entitled, 
.How to Write Letters, published by Sower, Potts <fc Co., Philadelphia. 

5. Pupils should be required to write abstracts of lessons. This 
exercise should occasionally take the place of the regular recitation, 
and be a written review or recitation upon some topic in geography 
or natural science. 

7. All errors in the use of language in every recitation should be 
♦ corrected, the pupil being constantly trained to talk correctly. 



86 COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 

8. Carefully selected poems and descriptions in prose should be 
learned and frequently recited before the school, as suggested in the 
work of the preceding grades. 

9. Pupils should be taught how to fold letters to put in envelopes,, 
and how to fold and file papers. 



CHAPTER V. 

Fifth Year Grade. 

1. Pupils in this grade should learn in the reading class, as a help 
in determining the thought, to point out the principal and modifying 
parte of the subjects and predicates of the sentences read. This is 
the beginning of the instruction in grammar, as a distinctive subject 
of study. No attempt should be made to do more than teach the 
child to determine the grammatical and logical predicate and sub- 
ject of any sentence in his reading lessons. 

2. Letter writing should be continued in this grade, and exten- 
ded to include business letters, notes of invitation, acceptance,, 
regret, etc. 

" The chief requisites of a business letter are clearness, correct- 
ness, and conciseness." It should treat of business matters only r 
avoiding social or family topics that bear no relation to the subject 
matter of the correspondence. Brevity is desirable, but not at the 
expense of the correct construction of sentences. The omission of 
subject or verb should be avoided ; also such abbreviations as 
"gents M for " gentlemen." 

The following are appropriate forms for business letters : 






COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 87 

LETTER OF INTRODUCTION. 

Indianapolis, Ind., 

Feb. 1, 1877. 
A. P. Stanton, Esq., 
Dublin, Ind. 

Dear Sir, — Permit me to introduce to you the 
bearer, Mr. Charles C. Brown, who visits your city for the purpose 
of seeking employment as a civil engineer. He is a graduate of the 
Polytechnic Institute at Troy, New York, and is both honest and 
capable. 

Any assistance that you may render him will be esteemed by me 
a personal favor. 

Very truly yours, 

John Smith. 

MERCANTILE LETTER. 

Richmond, Ind., 

March 22, 1877. 
Messrs. Bo wen, Stewart & Co., 
Indianapolis, Ind. 

Gentlemen, — Please send to us by express, 
at your earliest convenience, the following : 
4 doz. Hadley's Lessons in Language; 

2 doz. copies Helen's Babies, paper; 

3 doz. slates, 7x11. 

When forwarded, please send invoice. 

Very respectfully yours, 

Jones & Son. 

The following are appropriate forms for notes of invitation, accep- 
tance, etc. : 



88 COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 



NOTE OP INVITATION. 

Mr. and Mrs. David Graham request the pleasure of Dr. and Mrs. 
Brown's company at dinner, on Wednesday, March 6th, at six 
o'clock. 

701 Meridian St. 

An early answer is requested. 



NOTE OF ACCEPTANCE. 

Dr. and Mrs. Brown accept with pleasure the kind invitation of 
Mr. and Mrs. Graham for Wednesday evening, March 6th. 

608 Illinois St. 

Monday, March 4th. 

3. In the previous grades pupils have been frequently called 
upon to separate objects into their parts. In this grade they should 
be led to discover the different principles or bases upon which such 
separation may be made, and to name the parts upon each basis. 
The object of this exercise is to teach the fundamental principles of 
analysis. There are many bases upon which this separation may be 
made, but it is sufficient, for the present, to consider only two or 
three. 

1. We may consider the use, design, or office of the parts: as, the 
handle, the blade, the rivets, the back-spring, etc., of a pocket-knife; the seat, 
the back, the top or table, the shelf, the legs, etc., of a school-desk; the foun- 
dation, the walls, the roof, the windows, the doors, the rooms, the partitions, etc., 
of a house. This analysis may be carried another step, by separat- 
ing each of these parts into subordinate parts, which, in turn, may 
be separated into other parts, until the analysis is complete. An 
^exhaustive analysis is not required in this grade, but only so much as 
is necessary to give the pupil such practice in Division, as shall assist 
him in preparing an outline for the description of many classes of 
objects. 

2. We may consider material as the basis of separation; in which 
case the parts of the knife are iron, steel, brass, pearl or horn, etc. ; the 
parts of the school-desk are wood, iron, paint, or varnish, putty, screws, 
etc. 



COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 89 

3. An object may be separated into parts on the basis of relative 
•position of these parts : as, top, bottom, inside; outside, corner, edge, back, 
etc. 

It often occurs that the same name is given to a part obtained 
upon two or more different principles of separation ; as in the case 
of the screws of the desk. From one point of view they may be con- 
sidered manufactured material, and from another, they may be 
•considered as a part used to hold the other parts of the desk together. 

Exercises, such as are indicated above, are of great value in train- 
ing the child to think, which, as has been said, is one of the princi- 
pal results sought in teaching composition. 

4. Pursuing the line of thought suggested in the preceding para- 
graph, the pupil is next taught to classify the attributes of an object 
on the basis of the sense employed in gaining a knowledge of these 
attributes. Objects should be described by stating (1) the attributes 
known through the sense of sight; (2) those known through the 
sense of touch; (3) those known through the sense of hearing, of 
«mell, of taste; (4) those known by experiment; as, flexible, brittle, 
soluble, etc. 

Instruction upon the subjects suggested in this and the preceding 
paragraph, should be given in a conversational manner, the teacher 
relying chiefly upon oral drill to familiarize the pupil with the rules 
that are to guide him in making these different analyses. 

Written exercises should occasionally be required to test the 
pupil's ability to do the work alone. In conducting these lessons, 
and all similar ones, the teacher should lead the pupils to observe 
the law of method, which requires that the parts or attributes upon 
any one basis shall all be given, before any of those upon another 
basis are mentioned. 

5. The description of pictures, and the invention of stories sug- 
gested by them should be practiced as in the preceding grade. At 
least five exercises of this kind should be prepared during the year. 

6. One re-production from memory of something read or told by 
the teacher, should be required each month. 

7. Once each month, the pupils should be required to write an 
impromptu description of some object with which they are familiar. 



90 COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 

8. Pupils in this grade, should be held for the proper use of eapi- 
itals and marks of punctuation. (See Chapter X.) 

9. Pupils should never be allowed to begin to write a composi- 
tion, until they have prepared and written an outline of the theme 
in the order in which it is to be discussed. By obeying this direc- 
tion through all the grades, the habit will be formed of carefully 
studying a subject before undertaking to instruct others in regard 
to it. 

10. At least five selections of prose or poetry should be learned 
and recited during the year. 

11. At least one impromptu exercise should be given each week,, 
which may take the place of some other recitation, and be a written 
recitation, or a review of some topic in geography, natural science* 
etc. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Sixth Year Grade. — Grammar. 

The course in the preceding grades has prepared the pupil to- 
begin the study of technical grammar. In those grades, prominence 
has been given to collecting, arranging, and expressing thoughts; i.' 
e. ( to composition. But if the teacher has done what the course 
suggests, the foundation has been laid for an intelligent study of the 
sentence as a whole, and in its parts. This study is so different from 
that of composition, that for the next three or four years, the two 
subjects must be tanght separately. In this grade, three lessons 
each week should be given in grammar, and two, in composition. 
This plan will enable the teacher to carry on the two subjects at the 
same time, and apply the knowledge gained in one to instruction in 
the other. 

The following suggests the course to be pursued in teaching 



COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 91 

Grammar. 

All necessary information in regard to the subject matter of these 
lessons will be found in " Lessons in Grammar," Part I. of this 
manual. It is only designed in this place to suggest the amount of 
work to be done in this grade, and to give some hints as to the 
method. 

The teacher should first lead the pupil to form definitions of a 
thought, and a sentence. 

The following is one method of doing this: 

l f * t Request the pupils to think something of an object: as, an 
opptli* Questions may be asked as follows: 

" How many have thought something about this apple? " (Answer 
by raising hands.) 

"How can I learn what you have thought?" Ans. — "We must 
tell you." 

11 What will you use to tell me? " Ans.— " Words." 

" Where is the thought formed ? " Ans. — " In our minds." 

Teacher. — "Yes; but I can not know what your thought is until 
you have expressed it in some way. You might make up a certain 
kind of face, and then I should know that you thought the apple 
was sour; or you might point to something red, and then I should 
know that you thought the apple was red; and in these ways I 
would learn your thoughts. But the common way of expressing, 
thoughts is by the use of words. Each one may now express the 
thought in his mind about this apple, in words. (Pupils answer 
by forming complete sentences.) 

Teacher. — " When you thought sweetness, redness, hardness, etc, 
of the apple, you formed a thought) when you expressed these 
thoughts in words, you formed a sentence." 

\. A sentence is a group of words expressing a thought. 

In some such way, as suggested above, the following statements 
and definitions should be developed: 

2. Every thought has three elements, viz.: the subject of thought, 
the predicate of thought, and the thinking or judging act. 



92 COURSE IX COMPOSITION. 

3. Every sentence has three elements, viz. : the subject, the predicate, 
and the copula. 

Note.— 1. Care should be taken to avoid confounding the subject of the thought 
with the subject of the sentence. 

2. Numerous exercises should be given to illustrate each statement and defini- 
tion. Original sentences should be required of pupils, illustrating the same, and 
-enough practice given to make them familiar with every step taken. 

4. Each element of, the sentence may consist of one word, or 
two or more words: as, " Apples are ripe;" "The government of 
England, which is a limited monarchy, is strong and enduring." 

5. When any element of a sentence consists of two or more 
words, it may generally be separated into a principal and a modify- 
ing part. 

Exercise. 

a. Numerous sentences should be selected, having one or more 
of the elements composed of a principal and a modifying part. 

b. These sentences should be analyzed by naming (1) all the 
words composing each element; (2) the principal part of each ele- 
element; (3) the modifying part of each element. 

c. Pupils should be practiced in distinguishing modifyers as single 
words, phrases, and clauses. 

Note.— In all the preceding exercises, the copula and predicate should be 
expressed by different words. 

6. The copula and predicate are generally combined in one word: 
as, " John writes." 

Note.— Give numerous exercises illustrating this, and lead the pupil to see that 
these attributive verbs express both the judging act and the predicate of thought. 

Exercise. 

Analyze numerous sentences, in which the predicate and copula 
are united in one word, and one or more elements have modifying 
parts. 

7. Sentences are divided into four classes, viz,: Declarative, In- 
terrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory. 

A Declarative Sentence simply affirms the predicate of the subject 



COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 93 

An Interrogative, Sentence asks a question. 
An Imperative Sentence expresses a command. 
An Exclamatory Sentence expresses strong feeling. 

Exercise. 

Pupils should select and write sentences under each of these 
classes, and analyze each. 

Attributes. 

8. Pupils should be led to discover the differences between 
qualities, actions, and conditions, and to see that they are attribute* 
of objects and not parts. 

Exercise. 

a. Pupils should point out and classify the different words ex- 
pressing attributes in selected sentences. 

b. They should compose sentences in which the different kinds of 
attributes are expressed. 

Parts of Speech. 

9. Pupils should next be led to discover that words may be sepa- 
rated into classes on the basis of use: as, (1) words used to name 
objects, called nouns; (2) words used to name attributes of objects, 
called adjectives ; (3) words used to name attributes of other attri- 
butes, called adverbs; (4) words used to denote objects without 
naming them, called pronouns; (5) words used to express the thinking 
or judging act of the mind, called verbs; (6) words used to show 
relation between objects, or between attributes and objects, called 
prepositions; (7) words used to show relation of thoughts, called con- 
junctions; (8) words used to express feeling, called interjections. 

All the information that the teacher will need in regard to the 
matter to be taught, will be found in the chapters that treat upon 
these subjects in Parti. 

All that is required of pupils in this grade, in regard to the 
parts of speech, is to learn the definition of each, and to be able to 
classify the words in their reading lessons, as determined by their 
use in expressing the thought. 



94 COTJKSE IN COMPOSITION. 

CHAPTER VII. 

Sixth Year Grade. — Composition. 

1. Pupils in this grade should review all the rules for the forma- 
tion of plurals, and the possessive case, learned in the preceding grades, 
and should learn the additional rules given on pages 46, 47, and 49, 
of "Lessons in Grammar." 

2. At least one carefully prepared composition should be written 
each month. It is recommended that one of these be a description 
of something that it will be profitable for the pupils to study thor- 
oughly, because of the valuable information acquired. Another may 
be a comparison between two cities; two nations; the manners and 
customs of two races of people; two classes of animals; or some 
similar theme. Subjects should be chosen with reference to some 
study pursued by the pupils. The work in natural science will sug- 
gest one or more themes: e. g., " Description of a spider; " "History 
of a frog ; " and the like. At least one carefully prepared letter 
should be written. 

3. Pupils should practice expressing the thoughts of a poem in 
prose. This may be done in connection with the lesson in reading. 
The poem should be carefully studied, the number of paragraphs 
determined, and the pupils encouraged to give a " free translation " 
of it in prose. 

4. One imaginary sketch should be prepared. The subject may 
be, "A journey across the Continent;" "A visit to Paris;" "The 
home I would like to have ; " " A storm at sea ; " or any similar 
theme, about which information can be easily obtained. 

5. The rules for punctuation and capitals should be carefully 
observed, and the pupils should be held for the correct spelling of 
all words. The free use of the dictionary should be encouraged in 
the preparation of compositions. 

0. Impromptu exercises, as in other grades, should occasionally 
take the place of the regular recitation in one or more studies. 

7. It is of the greatest importance that each subject be carefully 



COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 95 

and methodically studied under the direction of the teacher, before 
the pupil begins to write the composition that is to be presented as 
his final production. 

Before the pupils begin to study a theme, the teacher should have 
prepared an outline, and have written a composition. She will thus 
know the Ian of study that the pupils are to pursue, and will know 
how to help them in gaining information. Besides, she will know 
better the difficulties that the pupils will encounter, and, therefore, 
be more patient with those that fail. It is not necessarj r to wait each 
week until the hour arrives for the recitation in composition, before 
any reference is made to this work. When a subject is before the 
school for study, some reference should be made to it each day, in 
the recitation in grammar, or reading, or at some other time, and 
such help given as the pupils need. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Seventh Year Grade. — Grammar. 

1. Teachers are expected to pursue the same general method of 
instruction in this grade as in the preceding, and to teach the classi- 
fication of the parts of speech, and of sentences, as presented in the 
first twelve chapters of " Lessons in Grammar." 

The attempt should not be made to teach these chapters exhaust- 
ively, since the pupils will be required to go over the same work in 
the next grade. 

The measure of the success of the teacher will be largely deter- 
mined by the pupiPs knowledge of the uses of these different classes 
of sentences, and parts of speech, in expressing thought. The 
pupil must always be led to see the necessity for each classification, 
before it is taught to him. The analysis of sentences is an impor- 
tant part of the work required. Before the pupil leaves this grade, 
he should be able to analyze most of the sentences in his reading 
lessons with ease. 



96 COTJKSE IN COMPOSITION. 

Composition. 

The rules and methods taught in the preceding grades are appli- 
cable to this. The teacher should study carefully the course pre- 
scribed for them, 

2. The compositions in this grade should be more elaborate than 
those previously required, and themes should be chosen that will 
demand greater research. Sufficient time should, therefore, be given 
for the preparation of each composition. An average of one each 
month, is all that can be properly prepared. 

The following themes are suggested : (1) a description of some 
historical picture, and the narration of the events suggested by it; 
(2) history of a block of coal ; (3) a biography ; (4) description of 
some city or building ; (5) narration of the events related in some 
poem; (6) history of a dew-drop; (7) subject taken from the work 
in geography; (8) a subject taken from the work in history; (9) a 
social letter. 

The following outline suggests one plan that may be followed in 
preparing a biography of Christopher Columbus: 

1. Time and place of birth. 

2. Opportunities for education, 

3. Vocation in early life. 

4. The popular opinion in regard to the shape of the earth at this 
time. 

5. The opinion of Columbus. 

6. How he proposed to prove the truth of his opinion. 

7. His preparation for the enterprise. 

8. His difficulties in procuring aid. 

9. The like experience of Prof. Morse, the inventor of the electric 
telegraph. 

10. The first voyage of Columbus. 

11. The number of his voyages and the result of each. 

12. The ungrateful conduct of the King of Spain. 

13. His death in poverty, and pompous funeral. 

14. The honor of naming the continent he had discovered con- 
ferred upon another. 

15. Importance of his discoveries to Spain. 

16. Character of Columbus. 



COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 97 

3. Impromptu exercises should be required as in preceding 
grades. 

An excellent way of preparing the reading lesson, is to require the 
pupils to write in their own language the thoughts expressed by the 
author. 

4. Five or more selections of prose or poetry should be commit- 
ted to memory and recited before the school. A portion of the time 
for the reading lesson may be taken occasionally for these recita- 
tions. 

5. All errors in the pronunciation and use of words, and in the 
construction of sentences, should be corrected. The teachers in all 
the upper grades, are expected to know what has been taught in the 
grades below, and to see that the rules there learned are observed 
by the pupils in their schools. 



CHAPTER IX. 

Eighth Year Grade. 

1. The " Lessons in Grammar " are to be completed by the pupils 
in this grade. 

2. Ten compositions should be written during the year. The 
following themes are suggested. 

DESCRIPTION. 

" The City of Indianapolis ; " " The Marion County Court House; " 
" The human eye." 

NARRATION. 

" Christopher Columbus ; " " Eoger Williams; " " Alexander Ham- 
ilton ; " " Abraham Lincoln ; " mt The events that led to the Mexican 
war;" "The events that led to the Missouri Compromise;" "The 
events that led to the late Civil War ; " " The process of digestion ; " 
"Making glass." 



98 COUESE IN COMPOSITION. 

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST. 

"Washington and Lincoln;" "The first settlers of Virginia and 
those of Massachusetts; "' " Webster and Calhoun." 

DIVISION. 

" The Constitution of the United States*" 

One social and one business letter should be written. 

The following is suggested as an outline for a composition on " A 
comparison between the settlers of Massachusetts and those of 
Virginia." 

1. Character of the early settlers of Massachusetts. 

2. Motives for emigrating to America. 

3. Character and motives of the early settlers of Virginia. 

4. Compare the government and social condition of the two 
colonies. 

5. State causes of this difference: (1) different objects of the colo- 
nists; (2) difference in the character of the people; (3) difference in 
climate and soil. 

6. Compare the influence of the two colonies, in determining the 
present condition of the Nation. 

3. Pupils should learn to recognize and define a simile, a meta- 
phor, a personification, an allegory, and a comparison. This 
instruction should be given in connection with the lessons in 
reading. 

4. Pupils in this grade should be able to point out the principal 
and modifying elements of any sentence in the reading lessons, at 
sight. 

5. The rules for capitals, punctuation, and spelling, should be 
carefully observed. 

6. The teacher is referred to the course of the preceding grades, 
for suggestions as to the methods to be pursued in teaching this 
subject. 

7. Pupils should be required to learn two or more selections of 
standard poetry. 

8. There should be four lessons each week in grammar, two in 
composition, and four in reading, throughout the year. 



¥ 



COURSE IN COMPOSITION. 99 



CHAPTER X, 



Rules for Punctuation. 



Rule I. — A Period should be placed after every declarative and 
every imperative sentence, and after every abbreviation. 

Rule II* — A Colon, a Semi-colon, or a Comma may be used before a 
direct quotation. 

Rule III. — A Colon is used after a member of a sentence that is 
complete in itself, but is immediately followed by some remark, or 
explanation; as, " To reason with him was vain: he was too angry." 

Rule IV. — The Colon is placed between members of a sentence 
that are sub-divided by a semi-colon. 

Rule V. — The Semi-colon is placed between parts that are sub- 
divided by the comma. 

Rule VI* — The Comma is used after each word in a succession of 
particulars; as, " Earth, air, and water* teem with life." 

Note.— When there are but two particulars connected by a conjunction, no 
comma is used- 

Rule VII. — The Comma is used to set off interposed words and 
phrases, and the foreign element in a complex sentence; as," John, 
come here; " " This, we think, is true; " "This, however, is not my 
purpose." 

Rule VIII* — The Comma may be inserted to avoid ambiguity; 
as, " He who teaches, often learns much." 

Rule IX. — The Exclamation Point is used to denote intense feeling ; 
as, " Oh me ! that awful dream ! 

Rule X. — The Interrogation Point is used to denote a question. 

Rule XI. — The Dash is used to denote an abrupt suspension or 
turn in the thought; as, " Is it possible — but I will not ask the ques- 
tion." 

Rule XII.— Quotation marks are used to set off a direct quota- 
tion; as, Socrates said, " I believe the soul is immortal." 



A COURSE 



IN 



COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR 



PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR GRADES 



OF THE 



INDIANAPOLIS PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 



PREPARED BY 
GEO. P. BROWN and RUTH MORRIS. 



INDIANAPOLIS - 

1877. 




Ubr Ary 




m 



I ■ 



1 L 

n 



